THE  -MICROSCOPY;    -:^ 


OF 


VEGETABLE   FOODS 


WITH   SPECIAL    REFERENCE   TO 


THE  DETECTION   OF   ADULTERATION   AND   THE 
DIAGNOSIS   OF   MIXTURES 


BY 

ANDREW    L.     WINTON,     PH.D. 

In  Charge  of  the  Analytical  Laboratory  of  the^Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
Instructor  in  Proximate  Organic  Analysis  in  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  of   Yale   University 

WITH   THE   COLLABORATION   OF 

DR.    JOSEF     MOELLER 

Professor  of  Pharmacology,  and  Head  of  the  Pharmacological  Institute  of  the 
University  of  Graz 


WITH   589  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIRST    EDITION 
FIRST    THOUSAND 


NEW   YORK 

JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS 

LONDON:     CHAPMAN   &    HALL,    LIMITED 

1906 


Copyright,  iqo6 

BY 
ANDREW  L.  WINTON 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall 


4 


ROBERT  DRUMMOND,    PRINTER,    NEW   YOHK 


PREFACE. 


THE  development  of  vegetable  histology,  both  as  a  pure  and  an 
applied  science,  has  been  largely  in  the  hands  of  continental  investi- 
gators. A  generation  ago  Sachs,  De  Bary,  and  other  histologists  labored 
on  the  purely  scientific  problems;  since  then  Vogl,  Moeller,  Tschirch, 
T.  F.  Hanausek,  Oesterle,  Planchon,  Collin,  Hohnel,  Mac6,  and  other 
technical  microscopists,  without  neglecting  research  problems,  have 
developed  microscopical  methods  for  the  diagnosis  of  foods,  drugs,  and 
fibers  which  rank  with  chemical  methods  in  practical  importance. 

The  extensive  literature  in  the  German  and  French  languages  on 
the  microscopy  of  foods  includes  several  comprehensive  works  devoted 
exclusively  to  the  subject,  a  still  greater  number  covering  either  the 
wider  range  of  foods  and  drugs  or  limited  to  special  fields,  such  as  cereal 
products  and  cattle  foods,  as  well  as  numerous  papers  in  botanical,  phar- 
maceutical, and  technical  journals. 

In  English  the  dearth  of  literature  on  a  subject  of  such  scientific  and 
technical  importance  is  noteworthy.  No  single  work  devoted  exclu- 
sively to  food  microscopy  has  hitherto  appeared,  although  Hassall,  Leach, 
and  some  other  analysts,  have  described  microscopical  as  well  as  chem- 
ical methods,  and  other  authors,  notably  Greenish,  Kraemer,  and  Jel^ 
liffe,  have  treated  on  the  microscopy  of  both  foods  and  drugs. 

The  present  work  is  designed  for  the  use  of  the  food  analyst,  the 
agricultural  chemist,  the  pharmacist,  and  others  engaged  in  the  exami- 
nation of  foods,  as  well  as  the  physician  who  may  be  called  upon  to 
identify  vegetable  substances  in  stomach  contents  and  faeces.  It  aims  to 
be  comprehensive,  covering  the  important  vegetable  foods  for  man  and 
cattle,  and  at  the  same  time  sufficiently  concise  for  ready  reference. 

The  idea  that  a  scientific  grounding  is  essential  for  practical  work  is 
paramount  throughout.  Only  by  a  systematic  study  of  each  product 


I44G26 


iV  "...  PREFACE. 

from  the '  Morphological  and  physiological  standpoint  can  one  hope  to 
develop  keen  observation  and  secure  lasting  impressions. 

The  work  is  closely  affiliated  with  the  second  edition  of  Moeller's 
"Mikroskopie  der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,"  which  appeared  a  few 
months  since  with  the  collaboration  of  the  writer.  The  descriptions  of 
the  individual  leaves,  flowers,  barks,  roots,  and  edible  fungi,  with  few 
exceptions,  are  translations  of  Professor  Moeller's  text,  and  no  less  than 
350  cuts  are  also  his.  It  is  with  the  deepest  gratitude  that  the  writer 
acknowledges  this  generous  cooperation  of  his  honored  teacher  and 
friend.  Had  it  not  been  for  Professor  Moeller's  unselfish  aid,  the  writer 
would  never  have  undertaken  investigations  in  this  field,  much  less  a 
comprehensive  treatise. 

Valuable  cuts  have  been  borrowed  from  the  following  well-known 
authors:  Berg,  Collin  and  Perrot,  Frank,  Gilg,  Hager,  Halstrom,  T.  F. 
Hanausek,  Hartig,  Hassall,  Kny,  Leach,  Luerssen,  Malfatti,  A.  Meyer, 
Mez,  R.  Miiller,  Nees,  Nobbe,  Planchon  and  Collin,  Sachs,  Schimper, 
Schumann,  Tschirch,  Tschirch  and  Oesterle,  Tulasne,  Villiers  and  Col- 
lin, Vogl,  Warburg,  and  Wittmack  and  Buchwald.  Numerous  cuts, 
made  from  the  writer's  drawings  for  publications  of  the  Connecticut 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  are  reproduced  with  the  kind  permission 
of  that  institution.  Acknowledgment  for  the  use  of  cuts  is  also  due 
the  following  publishers:  Julius  Springer,  Berlin  (publisher  of  Moeller's 
Mikroskopie);  The  Clarendon  Press,  Oxford;  Octave  Doin,  Paris; 
Wm.  Engelmann,  Leipsig;  Ferdinand  Enke,  Stuttgart;  Gustav  Fischer, 
Jena;  Carl  Gerold's  Sohn,  Vienna;  H.  Haessell,  Leipsig;  Alfred  Holder, 
Vienna;  A.  Joanin  &  Cie.,  Paris;  Longmans,  Green,  &  Co.,  London; 
Paul  Parey,  Berlin;  Chr.  Herm.  Tauchnitz,  Leipsig;  Urban  &  Schwarz- 
enberg,  Berlin  and  Vienna;  J.  J.  Weber,  Leipsig;  Weidmannsche  Buch- 
handlung,  Berlin.  Permission  to  reproduce  Fig.  16  was  kindly  granted 
by  Mr.  E.  Goodwin  Clayton,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S.,  consulting  chemist,  32  Holborn 
Viaduct,  London,  England.  The  larger  part  of  Professor  Moeller's  and 
the  writer's  drawings  were  reproduced  on  wood  by  F.  X.  Matolony  of 
Vienna. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  text  the  works  of  the  leading  authors  have 
been  consulted,  and  credit  has  frequently  been  given  for  important  dis- 
coveries, although  so  far  as  possible  the  writer  has  based  his  descriptions 
on  his  own  observations.  The  descriptions  of  cucurbitaceous  fruits  and 
three  excellent  cuts  illustrating  the  structure  of  the  pumpkin  were  con- 
tributed by  Miss  Kate  G.  Barber. 


PREFACE.  V 

The  bibliographies  throughout  the  work  and  the  glossary  are  largely 
the  work  of  my  wife,  who  has  devoted  much  time  and  thought  to  other 
details. 

Professor  Moeller's  analytical  key  to  commercial  starches  will  be  found 
a  reliable  guide  in  diagnosis.  It  is  hoped  the  writer's  keys  to  cereals, 
cruciferous  seeds,  umbelliferous  fruits,  legumes,  and  spices  will  also 
prove  of  value,  although  they  are  not  universally  applicable  since  many 
materials  lack  certain  histological  elements  present  in  the  original  prod- 
uct. 

The  indulgence  of  the  reader  is  asked  for  omissions  of  which  the 
writer  is  painfully  aware,  and  for  errors  which  doubtless  will  be  detected. 

NEW  HAVEN,  CONN., 

November  i,  1905. 


CONTENTS. 


PART   I. 

PRELIMINARY:     EQUIPMENT,    METHODS,    AND    GENERAL 

PRINCIPLES. 

PAGB 

INTRODUCTION 3 

APPARATUS 6 

REAGENTS 8 

COLLECTIONS u 

PREPARATION  OF  MATERIALS  FOR  EXAMINATION 12 

MECHANICAL  PREPARATION 12 

TREATMENT  WITH  REAGENTS 15 

THE  PRINCIPAL  HISTOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS 20 

TISSUES 20 

CELL-CONTENTS 23 

MORPHOLOGY  OF  ORGANS 28 

THE  LEAF 28 

THE  FLOWER 30 

THE  FRUIT 33 

Pericarp 33 

Seed 35 

THE  STEM 38 

Bark 40 

Wood 41 

THE  ROOT 44 


PART   II. 
GRAIN:  ITS  PRODUCTS  AND  IMPURITIES. 

GRAIN 49 

Flour  and  Meal 49 

Impurities  and  Adulterants 49 

Methods  of  Examination 52 

vii 


viil  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Bread 56 

Cattle  Foods 57 

Methods  of  Examination 59 

CEREALS  (Graminece) 60 

Microscopic  Characters 62 

Analytical  Keys 63 

Wheat  (Triticum) 65 

Spelt  (Triticum  sativum  var.  Speltd) 73 

Emmer  (Triticum  sativum  var.  dicoccum) 75 

One-grained  Wheat  (Triticum  monococcum) 76 

Rye  (Secale  cereale) 77 

Barley  (Hordeum  sativum) 80 

Maize  (Zea  Mays) 86 

Broom  Corn  (Andropogon  Sorghum  var.  technicus) 97 

Sugar  Sorghum  (Andropogon  Sorghum  var.  saccJiaratus) 103 

Kaffir  Corn  (Andropogon  Sorghum) 104 

Durrha  (Andropogon  Sorghum  var.  durrd) 104 

Rice  (Oryza  saliva) 105 

Oats  (Avena  sativd) in 

Common  Millet  (Panicum  miliaceum) 1 16 

German  Millet  (Setaria  Italica=S.  panis) 118 

Green  Foxtail  (Setaria  mridis  =  Chatochloa  mridis) 118 

Yellow  Foxtail  (Setaria  glauca  =  Ch(Ztochloa  glauca) 124 

Darnel  (Lolium  temulentum) 125 

Chess  (Bromus  secalinus) 1 30 

BUCKWHEATS  (Polygonacece) 132 

Common  Buckwheat  (Fagopyrum  esculentum) 132 

Tartary  Buckwheat  (Fagopyrum  Tartaricum) 138 

Black  Bindweed  (Polygonum  Con-volvulus) 138 

Other  Polygonaceous  Seeds 144 

WEED  SEEDS 145 

Screenings 1 45 

European 145 

American 146 

Analyses 147 

Methods  of  Examination 148 

CARYOPHYLLACEOUS  SEEDS  (Caryophyllace<z) 148 

Cockle  (Agrostemma  Githago) 148 

Cow  Herb  (Vaccaria  parviflora^Saponaria  Vaccaria) 151 

Soapwort  (Saponaria  officinalis} .  . ." 151 

Spurrey  (Spergula  arvensis) 152 

RANUNCULACEOUS  SEEDS  (Ranunculacece) 152 

Buttercup  Fruit  (Ranunculus  arvensis) 153 

Adonis  Fruit  (Adonis  (zsti-valis,  A.  Flammed) 154 

Larkspur  Seed  (Delphinium  Consolidd) 155 

Louse  Seed  (Delphinium  Staphysagrid) . ' 155 

Black  Caraway  (Nigella  arvensis) 1 56 

MISCELLANEOUS  WEED  SEEDS 156 

Cow  Wheat  (Melampyrum  arvense) 156 

Bindweed  (Con-volvulus  arvensis) 157 


CONTENTS.  ix 

PAGE 

Wild  Carrot  (Daucus  Carota) ' 158 

Hollow  Seed  (Bijora  radians) 159 

Cornflower  (Centaurea  Cyanus) 160 

Cleavers  (Galium) 161 

Plantain  (Plantago  major,  P.  lanceolata) 163 

FUNGUS  IMPURITIES 164 

Ergot  (Claviceps  purpurea) 164 

Smuts  (Uslilago,  Tillelia,  etc.) 165 


PART   III. 
OIL  SEEDS  AND  OIL  CAKES. 

OIL  SEEDS 169 

Oil-seed  Products 169 

Methods  of  Examination 1 70 

CRUCIFEROUS  SEEds  (Crucijera) 172 

Microscopic  Characters 173 

Analytical  Key 174 

White  Mustard  (Sinapis  alba) 176 

Black  Mustard  (Brassica  nigrd) 180 

Sarepta  Mustard  (Brassica  Besseriana) 183 

Charlock  (Brassica  Sinapistrum  =  Sinapis  arvensis) 184 

Common  Rape  (Brassica  Napus) 185 

German  Rape-  (Brassica  Rapa) 187 

Indian  Colza  (Brassica  campestris  var.  Sarsori) 187 

Brown  Indian  Rape  (Brassica  Napus  var.  dicholoma) 188 

Indian  Mustard  (Brassica  junced) 188 

Palai  Rape  (Brassica  rugosa) 188 

Dissected  Mustard  (Brassica  dissecta) » 189 

Eruca  (Eruca  saliva) 189 

False  Flax  (Camelina  saliva) 189 

Hedge  Mustard  (Sisymbrium  officinale,  S.  Sophia,  etc.) „.  191 

Shepherd's  Purse  (Capsella  Bursa-Pasloris) 191 

Wild  Peppergrass  (Lepidium  campestre,  L.  salivum) 192 

Field  Pennycress  (Thlaspi  arvense) 192 

Treacle  Mustard  (Erysimum  orientate) 192 

Wild  Radish  (Raphanus  Raphanislrum) 193 

Winter  Cress  (Barbarea  vulgaris) 193 

COMPOSITE  OIL  FRUITS  (Composite) 193 

Sunflower  (Helianthus  annuus) 194 

Madia  Seed  (Madia  saliva) 197 

Niger  Seed  (Guizotia  Abyssinica  =  G.  oleifera).  , 200 

MISCELLANEOUS  OIL  SEEDS 202 

Linseed  (Linum  usitatissimum) 202 

Cottonseed  (Gossypium  herbaceum) 205 

Kapok  Seed  (Ceibo  pentandra  =  Eriodendron  anfracluosum) 211 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Hemp  Seed  (Cannabis  saliva) 212 

Sesame  Seed  (Sesamum  Indicum) ' 217 

Castor  Bean  (Ricinus  communis) 220 

Candlenut  (Aleurites  lriloba  =  A.  Moluccana) 222 

Poppy  Seed  (Papaver  somniferum) 223 

Olive  (Olea  Europea) 226 


PART   IV. 
LEGUMES. 

LEGUMES   (Leguminosa) 233 

Microscopic  Characters 233 

Analytical  Key 235 

Common  Bean  (Phaseolus  vulgaris) 238 

Spanish  Bean  (Phaseolus  multiflorus) 240 

Adzuki  Bean  (Phaseolus  Mungo,  var.  glaber) 241 

Lima  Bean  (Phaseolus  lunatus) 241 

Pea  (Pisum  arvense,  P.  salivum) 242 

Lentil  (Lens  esculenta  =  Er-vum  Lens) 245 

China  Bean  (Vigna  Catjang  =  V.  Sinensis  =  Dolichos  Sinensis) 247 

Soy  Bean  (Glycine  hispida  =Soja  hispida) 248 

Egyptian  Bean  (Dolichos  Lablab  =  Lablab  vulgaris) 249 

Horse  Bean  (Faba  -vulgaris  =  Vicia  Fabd) 250 

Spring  Vetch  (Vicia  saliva) 251 

Winter  Vetch  (Vicia  villosa) 252 

Hairy  Vetch  (Vicia  hirsutd) 252 

Yellow  Lupine  (Lupinus  luleus) 253 

White  Lupine  (Lupinus  albus) 255 

Blue  Lupine  (Lupinus  angustifolius) 255 

Chick  Pea  (Cicer  arietinuni) 256 

Soudan  Coffee  (Parkia  Africana,  P.  Roxburgii) 257 

Jack  Bean  (Canavalia  ensiformis,  C.  obtusifolia) 258 

Fenugreek  (Trigonella  Fcenum-Grcecum) 259 

Coffee  Cassia  (Cassia  occidentalis) 262 

Astragalus  (Astragalus  baticus) 264 

Lucerne  (Medicago  saliva) 265 

Peanut  (Arachis  hypog&d) 266 

Tonka  Bean  (Coumarouna  odorala  =  Dipleryx  odorala,  etc.) 273 

Carob  Bean  (Ceralonia  Siliqua) 275 


CONTENTS.  XI 

PART  V. 
NUTS. 

PAGB 

NUTS 28! 

PALM  FRUITS  (Palmaz) 281 

Cocoanut  (Cocos  nucifera) 281 

Palm-nut  (El&is  Guincensis) 290 

Wax-palm  (Corypha  cerijera  =  Copernica  ceriferd) : 292 

Ivory-nut  (Phytelephas  macrocarpa,  etc.) 293 

Polynesian  Ivory-nut  (Codococcus) 295 

WALNUTS  (Juglandacece) 295 

European  Walnut  (Juglans  regia) 295 

Black  Walnut  (Juglans  nigrd) 298 

Butternut  (Juglans  cinerea) 298 

Pecan  Nut  (Carya  olivczformis) 298 

Hickory-nut  (Carya  alba) 299 

CUP  NUTS  (Cupulifera:) 299 

Chestnut  (Castanea  saliva,  etc.) 299 

Acorn  (Quercus) 302 

Beech-nut  (Fagus  syl-vatica,  F.  ferruginea~) 307 

Hazelnut  (Corylus) 309 

MISCELLANEOUS  NUTS 312 

Brazil-nut  (Bertholletia  excelsa} 312 

Pistachio-nut  (Pistacia  verd) 315 

Pine-nut  (Pinus  Pinea,  P.  Cembrd) 316 


PART   VI. 

FRUIT  AND   FRUIT   PRODUCTS. 

FRUIT 3I9 

Fruit  Products 319 

Adulterants 319 

Methods  of  Examination % 320 

ROSACEOUS  FRUITS  (Rosace<z) 323 

Apple  (Pyrus  Malus) 323 

Pear  (Pyrus  communis) 328 

Quince  (Cydonia  vulgar  is  =  Pyrus  Cydonia) \  331 

Almond  (Prunus  amygdalus) 333 

Peach  (Prunus  Persicd) 337 

Apricot  (Prunus  Armeniaca) 339 

Plum  (Prunus  domestica,  P.  triflora) 340 

Cherry  (Prunus  amum,  P.  cerasus) 341 

Rose  Fruit  (Rosa  canina) 342 

Strawberry  (Fragaria) 343 


xii  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Red  Raspberry  (Rubus  Idatus,  etc.) 349 

Black  Raspberry  (Rubus  occidentalis) 354 

Blackberry  (Rubus  jruticosus,  etc.) 354 

SAXIFRAGACEOUS  FRUITS  (Saxifragacece) 357 

Red  Currant  (Ribes  rubrum) 357 

Black  Currant  (Ribes  nigrum) 362 

Gooseberry  (Ribes  Grossularia,  etc.) , 363 

ERICACEOUS  FRUITS  (Ericacece) .' .  .  .  366 

Cranberry  (V actinium  macrocarpon,  etc.) 366 

Blueberry  (Vaccinium  Myrtillus,  etc.) 370 

Huckleberry  (Gaylussacia  resinosd) 373 

CITRUS  FRUITS  (Rutacece) 376 

Orange  (Citrus  Aurantium) 376 

Lemon  (Citrus  medica,  var.  Limon) 381 

Citron  (Citrus  medica,  var.  genuina) 381 

MISCELLANEOUS  FRUITS 382 

Grape  (Vitis  mnifera) 382 

Fig  (Ficus  Carica) '. 386 

Date  (Phoenix  dactylijera) 390 

Banana  (Musa  sapientum) 393 

Pineapple  (Ananassa  saliva) 395 


PART    VII. 

VEGETABLES. 

VEGETABLES 401 

CUCURBIT  FRUITS  (Cucurbitacece) 401 

Pumpkin  (Cucurbita  Pepd) 402 

Squash  (Cucurbita  maxima) 406 

Cucumber  (Cucumis  sativus) 406 

Muskmelon  (Cucumis  Meld) 407 

Watermelon  (Citrullus  -vulgaris) 408 

SOL,ANACEOUS  FRUITS  (Solanacece) 410 

Tomato  (Solanum  Lycopersicum=Lycopersicum  esculentum) 410 

TUBERS  AND  ROOTS. 414 

Potato  (Solanum  tuberosum) 414 

Japanese  Potato  (Stachys  Sieboldii} 415 

Jerusalem  Artichoke  (Helianthus  tuber osus) 416 

Beet  (Beta  vulgaris) 417 

Carrot  (Daucus  Carota) - 418 

Turnip  (Brassica  Rapd) 419 

FUNGI 419 

Truffles  (Tuber} 420 

Morels  (Morchella,  Gymitra,  Hehelld) i . .  .  422 

Mushrooms  (Psalliota,  Boletus) 423 


CONTENTS.  xni 

PART   VIII. 
ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS  AND  THEIR  SUBSTITUTES. 

PAGE 

ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS 427 

Coffee  (Coffea  Arabicd) 427 

Liberian  Coffee  (Coffea  Libericd) 438 

Chicory  (Chicorium  Intybus) 438 

Dandelion  (Leontodon  Taraxacum) 440 

Cocoa  Bean  (Theobroma  Cacao) 442 

Guarana  (Paullinia  sorbilis) 45 1 

Kola  Nut  (Cola  acuminata) 452 

Tea  (Camellia  Thed) 452 

Gromwell  Leaves  (Lithospermum  ojficinale) 458 

Willow  Herb  Leaves  (Epilobium  angustijolium  =  Chamaenerium  angusti- 

folium) 459 

Willow  Leaves  (Salix) 461 

Ash  Leaves  (Fraxinus  sp.} .* 462 

Rowan  Leaves  (Sorbus  Aucuparia  =  Pyrus  Aucuparia) 463 

Mulberry  Leaves  (Morus  alba,  M.  nigra) 464 

Coffee  Leaves  (Coffea  Arabica) 466 

Camellia  Leaves  (Camellia  Japonicd) 467 

Cherry  Leaves  (Prunus  amum) 468 

Sloe  Leaves  (Prunus  spinosa} 469 

Rose  Leaves  (Rosa  canina,  etc.) 470 

Strawberry  Leaves  (Fragaria  vesca) • 471 

Meadowsweet  Leaves  (Spir&a  Ulmand) 473 

Wistaria  Leaves  (\Vistana  Sinensis  =  Kraunhia  flonbunda) 475 

Hydrangea  Leaves  (Hydrangea  Hortensid) 476 

Maple  Leaves  "(Acer  Negundo  =  Negundo  jraxini'oliurn) 477 

Oak  Leaves  (Quercus  pedunculata,  Q.  sessiliflora)  ,  . 477 

Akebia  Leaves  (Akebia  quinatd) 478 

Blueberry  Leaves  (Vaccinium  Myrtillus) 480 

Caucasian  Tea  (Vaccimum  Arctostaphylos) 481 

Other  tea  Substitutes 483 

Mate  (Ilex  Paraguariensis) 483 

Coca  (Erythroxylon  Coca) 485 

Tobacco  (Nicotiana  Tabacum,  N.  rusttca) 486 


xiv  CONTENTS. 


PART    IX. 

SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 

PAGE 

SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS 493 

Impurities • 493 

Adulterants 494 

Methods  of  Examination 496 

Analytical  Key 498 

Condimental  Cattle  and  Poultry  Foods 499 

Methods  of   Examination 500 

PIPERACEOUS  FRUITS  (Piperacea) 502 

Pepper  (Piper  nigrum) 502 

Long  Pepper  (Piper  officinarum,  P.   longum) 511 

Cubebs  (Piper  Cubebd) 513 

SOLANACEOUS  FRUITS  (Solanacece) 515 

Paprika  (Capsicum) 515 

Cayenne  Pepper  (Capsicum  jastigiatum,  etc.) 523 

MYRTACEOUS  FRUITS  (Myrtacece) 526 

Allspice  (Pimenta  officinalis,  etc.) 526 

NUTMEGS  AND  MACE  (Myristicacea) 531 

True  Nutmeg  and  Mace  (Myristica  jragrans) 531 

Macassar  Nutmeg  and  Mace  (Myristica  argented) 540 

Bombay  Mace  (Myristica  Malabarica) 540 

CARDAMOMS  (Zingiberacece) 542 

Malabar    Cardamom     (Elettaria    Cardamomum,  Amomum  Cardamomum, 

etc.) 542 

Ceylon  Cardamom  (Elettaria  Cardamomum) 547 

UMBELLIFEROUS  FRUITS  (Umbelli feres) 549 

Comparative  Histology  of  Umbelliferous  Fruits 550 

Analytical  Key 551 

Fennel  (Foeniculum  capillaceum) 552 

Caraway  (Carum  ~Carvi) 555 

Anise  (Pimpinella  Anisum) 558 

Cumin  (Cuminum  Cyminum) 560 

'Coriander  (Coriandrum  sativum}.  .  . .  t 562 

Dill  (Anethum  graveolens) 564 

Celery  Seed  (Apium  gra-veolens} 565 

MISCELLANEOUS  FRUITS  AND  SEEDS 566 

Star-anise  (Illicium  verum) • 566 

Shikimi  (Illicium  religiosum) 572 

Vanilla  (Vanilla  planifolia) 573 

Vanillon  (Vanilla  pompona) 578 

Bayberry  (Laurus  nobilis) -» 579 

Juniper  Berry  (Juniperus  communis) 582 

BARKS 585 

Cassia  (Cinnamomum) 585 

Cassia  Buds  (Cinnamomum  Cassia) ' 591 

Ceylon  Cinnamon  (Cinnamomum  Ceylonicum) 593 


CONTENTS  XV 

PAGE 

Clove  Bark  (Dicypellium  caryophyllatum) 594 

Canella  Bark  (Canella  alba) 597 

RHIZOMES 599 

Ginger  (Zingiber  officinale,  etc.) 599 

Turmeric  (Curcuma  longd) 602 

Zedoary  (Curcuma  Zedoaria) .  .  .  .  605 

Galangal  (Alpinia  ofjicinarum,  A.  calcarata) 606 

Sweet  Flag  (Acorus  Calamus) 608 

LEAVES 610 

Sage  (Salma  officinalis) 610 

Marjoram  (Origanum  Majorana) ' 612 

Savory  (Satureja  hortensis) 613 

Thyme  (Thymus  -vulgaris) 615 

Hyssop  (Hyssopus  officinalis) 615 

Bay-leaf  (Laurus  nobilis) 616 

Tarragon  (Artemisia  Dracunculus) 617 

Wormwood  (Artemisia  vulgaris) 619 

Sorrel  (Rumex  scutatus) 621 

FLOWERS 622 

Saffron  (Crocus  sativus) 623 

Marigold  Flowers  (Calendula  officinalis) 627 

Safflower  (Carthamus  tinctorius) 629 

Cape  Saffron  (Lyperia  crocea) .- 631 

South  African  Saffron  (Tritonia  aurea  =  Crocosma  aurea  =  Babiana  aurea).  632 

Maize  Silk  (Zea  Mays) 632 

Cloves     (Eugenia     caryophyllata=Jambosa     Caryophyllus  =  Caryophyllus 

aromaticus) 632 

Clove  Stems. 636 

Clove  Fruit 637 

Capers  (Capparis  spinosa) 639 


PART   X. 
COMMERCIAL  STARCHES. 

COMMERCIAL  STARCHES 643 

Analytical  Key 649 

Maize  Starch  (Zea  Mays) 651 

Rice  Starch  (Oryza  saliva) 652 

Wheat  Starch  (Triticum  sativwm) 653 

Buckwheat  Starch  (Fagopyrum  esculentum) 654 

Leguminous  Starches  (Leguminosce) 655 

Chestnut  Starch  (Castanea  vescd) 656 

Horse-chestnut  Starch  (JEsculus  Hippocastanum) 657 

Bean-tree  Starch  (Castanospermum  Australe) 658 

Banana  Starch  {Musa) 658 


xvi  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Bread-fruit  Starch  (Artocarpus  incisd) 659 

Potato  Starch  (Solanum  tuberosum) 659 

Maranta  Starch  or  West  India  Arrowroot  (Maranta  arundinaced) 660 

Curcuma  Starch  or  East  India  Arrowroot  (Curcuma) 662 

Canna  Starch  or  Queensland  Arrowroot  (Canna) , 662 

Yam  Starch  or  Guiana  Arrowroot  (Dioscored) 663 

Cassava  Starch  (Manihot  utilissima,  M.  aipi) 664 

Sweet-potato  Starch  or  Brazilian  Arrowroot   (Batatas    edulis  =  I  pomcea 

Batatas) 665 

Arum  Starch  or  Portland  Arrowroot  (Arum) 666 

Tacca  Starch  or  Tahiti  Arrowroot  (Tacca  pinnatifidd) 667 

Sago  (Metroxylon,  Sagus,  etc.) 667 

Miscellaneous  Starches 669 

GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 671 

GLOSSARY 675 

INDEX 685 


PART  I. 

PRELIMINARY:    EQUIPMENT,   METHODS 
AND   GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 


THE  MICROSCOPY  OF  VEGETABLE  FOODS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  MICROSCOPY  OF  VEGETABLE  FOODS  is  an  applied  analytical 
science  having  for  its  purpose  the  identification  of  food  products  of  vege- 
table origin  by  the  microscopic  structure  and  microchemical  reactions 
of  their  tissues  and  cell-contents. 

It  is  a  branch  of  Analytical  Vegetable  Histology,  other  important 
branches  being  the  Microscopy  of  Drugs,  or  Microscopic  Pharmacognosy, 
and  the  Microscopy  of  Fibers.  ' 

Preliminary  Study.  As  the  microscopy  of  foods,  like  the  allied  branches 
of  analytical  histology,  is  a  department  of  applied  botany,  it  cannot  be 
properly  taken  up  until  after  a  course  of  instruction  in  the  parent  science, 
especially  that  part  relating  to  the  histology  or  microscopic  anatomy  of 
phanerogamic  plants.  To  omit  this  is  as  irrational  as  to  undertake  the 
study  of  analytical  chemistry  without  previous  knowledge  of  general 
chemistry. 

This  training  in  botany  need  not,  however,  be  more  than  is  given  in  a 
good  high-school  course  with  practical  histological  work,  although  a  sup- 
plementary course  in  the  histology  of  phanerogams  is  highly  desirable. 

The  student  should  begin  his  work  in  food  microscopy  with  a  sys- 
tematic study  of  the  most  important  seeds,  fruits,  leaves,  flowers,  roots, 
and  barks  used  as  foods  or  food  adulterants.  This  work  should  include: 
(i)  the  macroscopic  anatomy;  (2)  the  histology  as  studied  in  transverse 
(less  often  longitudinal  or  tangential)  sections ;  (3)  the  histology  as  studied 
in  surface  preparations  of  the  successive  layers  obtained  by  scraping  or 
stripping;  and  (4)  the  microscopic  characters  of  the  powdered,  pulped,  or 
macerated  material.  Macroscopic  preparations  show  the  general  nature 
and  relative  size  of  the  parts ;  cross-sections,  the  number  of  layers,  order 
of  arrangement,  and  certain  details  of  structure;  surface  mounts,  the 
details  of  cell  structure  most  useful  in  practical  work;  and  mounts  of 
the  powdered  material,  much  that  is  learned  from  surface  mounts  and  in 

3 


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PRELIMINARY. 


addition  the  characters  of  the  isolated  cell-elements  and  cell-contents. 
The  student  who  has  not  the  time,  apparatus;  or  technique  for  cutting 
careful  sections  can  use  permanent  mounts  of  a  collection,  or  can  even 
depend  on  illustrations  of  such  sections,  but  he  should  prepare  his  own 
mounts  for  the  study  of  each  material  in  surface  view  or  powder  form. 

After  this  general  work,  which  is  analogous  to  the  study  of  the  reac- 
tions of  the  several  bases  and  acids  in  his  course  in  analytical  chemistry, 
the  student  is  prepared  to  undertake  the  diagnosis  of  mixtures.  In  this 
work  he  will  find  that  of  some  materials,  such,  for  example,  as  ground 
coffee,  he  can  pick  out  fragments  large  enough  for  cutting  sections,  or 
preparing  surface  mounts  by  scraping,  but  as  a  rule  he  must  depend 
entirely  on  the  microscopic  appearance  of  the  powder.  His  knowledge 
gained  by  his  study  of  sections  and  surface  mounts  of  standard  material 
will,  however,  be  invaluable  to  him  in  interpreting  the  results  of  his  exami- 
nations of  powders. 

The  object  of  this  book  is  to  aid  both  the  student  and  the  practical 
worker,  assuming  that  both  are  familiar  with  the  general  principles  of 
elementary  botany,  vegetable  histology,  and  microtechnique,  or  at  least 
are  in  a  position  to  use  intelligently  reference  works  on  these  subjects. 

Relation  to  Chemical  Analysis.  Although  the  work  of  microscopic 
examination  is  distinctly  botanical,  its  chief  value  is  in  conjunction  with 
chemical  analysis,  and  for  this  reason  is  more  often  undertaken  by  the 
analyst  with  a  moderate  knowledge  of  vegetable  histology  than  by  the 
professional  botanist.  Only  in  large  institutions  can  the  work  be  divided 
among  specialists. 

Both  analytical  chemistry  and  analytical  histology,  although  widely 
unlike  in  their  processes,  are  used  in  solving  problems  relating  to  the 
nature  or  purity  of  powdered  foods,  drugs,  and  other  products  of  vegetable 
origin.  Sometimes  one  line  of  investigation  alone  is  useful,  sometimes 
the  other,  but  often  each  throws  some  light  on  the  problem,  thus  furnishing 
an  indisputable  chain  of  evidence. 

Analytical  chemistry  determines  the  amount  of  fiber,  starch,  protein, 
oil,  etc.  ;  analytical  histology,  the  shape,  size,  reactions,  and  other  char- 
acteristics of  the  cells  and  cell-contents.  Analytical  chemistry  usually 
stops  with  the  mere  determination  of  the'  amount  of  chemical  constituents  ; 
analytical  histology  goes  further,  and  names  the  seeds,  roots,  barks,  01 
other  vegetable  products  from  which  the  material  was  prepared.  Ana- 
lytical chemistry  answers  a  question  in  scientific  terms  ;  analytical  histology 
in  terms  which  all  can  understand. 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

In  many  cases  a  satisfactory  idea  of  a  material  is  gained  only  by  fol- 
lowing out  both  lines  of  investigation.  By  chemical  analysis  we  learn  the 
percentage  of  protein,  fiber,  starch,  etc.,  but  not  the  ingredients  from  which 
they  were  derived;  by  microscopic  analysis  we  learn  the  ingredients, 
but  gain  little  idea  of  their  proportion;  but  given  the  results  of  both 
analyses,  we  may  often  calculate  approximately  the  percentage  of  the 
different  materials  present. 

If,  for  example,  we  find  in  ground  cloves  5  per  cent  instead  of  15  per 
cent  of  essential  oil,  and  40  per  cent  instead  of  8  per  cent  of  fiber,  we  know 
it  is  not  pure  cloves;  if  we  find  under  the  microscope  a  large  amount  of 
stone  cells  and  other  tissues  of  the  cocoanut  shell,  we  learn  the  adulterant. 
Knowing  all  this,  and  knowing  the  average  percentage  of  volatile  oil  in 
cloves  and  of  fiber  in  both  cloves  and  cocoanut  shells,  we  have  the  data 
for  calculating  roughly  the  percentage  of  each  in  the  mixture. 

Mineral  salts  and  other  inorganic  constituents  of  a  mixture  are  iden- 
tified by  chemical  or  microchemical  tests,  and  the  amounts  present  deter- 
mined by  chemical  methods. 


Elementary  Botany. 

BERGEN:  The  Foundations  of  Botany.     Boston,  1903. 
BESSEY:  Botany  for  High  Schools  and  Colleges.     New  York,  1880. 
LEAVITT:  Outlines  of  Botany.     New  York. 

Structural  Botany. 
GRAY:  Structural  Botany.     New  York,  1880. 

Vegetable  Histology. 
See  p.  25. 

Microscopy  of  Drugs. 

GREENISH:  Foods  and  Drugs.     London,  1903. 
JELLIFFE:  Introduction  to  Pharmacognosy.     Philadelphia,  1904. 
KRAEMER:  A  Course  in  Botany  and  Pharmacognosy.     Philadelphia,  1902. 

Microscopy  of  Fibers. 
MATHEWS:  The  Textile  Fibers.     New  York,  1904. 

Chemistry  of  Foods. 

BATTERSHALL:  Food  Adulteration  and  its  Detection.     New  York,  1887. 
BELL:  The  Chemistry  of  Foods.     London,  1881. 
BLYTH:  Foods,  their  Composition  and  Analysis.     London,  1903. 

HASSALL:  Food,  its  Adulteration  and  the  Methods  for  their  Detection.     London,  1876. 
LEACH:  Food  Inspection  and  Analysis.     New  York,  1904. 
LEFFMANN  and  BEAM:  Select  Methods  of  Food  Analysis.     Philadelphia,  1905. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Chemistry,  Bulletins  13,  46,  and  65. 

1  Works  in  English. 


APPARATUS. 

It  is  beyond  the  province  of  this  work  to  describe  the  construction  of 
the  microscope  and  microscopic  apparatus,  or  give  instructions  for  their 
care  and  use.  Those  who  desire  information  of  this  nature  are  referred 
to  the  works  named  on  p.  19  and  the  pamphlets  issued  by  the  leading 
makers  of  instruments. 

The  list  of  apparatus  which  follows  is  designed  merely  as  a  guide 
for  the  purchaser. 

Essential  Apparatus.  The  apparatus  described  under  this  head  is 
essential  for  the  most  elementary  work  in  food  microscopy;  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  sufficient  for  verifying  nearly  all  the  descriptions  in  this  volume, 
and  for  undertaking  most  of  the  problems  encountered  in  practical  work. 

Compound  Microscope.  The  stand  should  be  of  the  Continental 
type,  and  should  be  provided  with  two  objectives,  a  double  nose-piece, 
two  eye-pieces,  an  eye-piece  micrometer,  and  a  substage  diaphragm. 

A  satisfactory  range  in  magnification  is  secured  by  f  and  J  objectives 
and  i-  and  2-inch  eye-pieces,  of  English  and  American  makers,  or  Nos.  2 
and  6  objectives  and  II  and  IV  eye-pieces  of  Continental  makers. 

A  simple  form  of  eye-piece  micrometer  is  suited  for  our  purpose.  It 
may  be  calibrated  by  means  of  a  stage  micrometer. 

The  double  nose-piece,  enabling  the  worker  instantly  to  change  from 
one  objective  to  the  other,  is  an  inexpensive  convenience  that  adds  so  much 
to  the  utility  of  the  instrument  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  necessity. 

For  ordinary  work  the  only  substage  attachments  needed  are  the 
mirror  and  a  simple  diaphragm,  but  the  substage  should  be  of  such  a 
construction  as  to  permit  the  introduction  of  a  substage  condenser  and 
an  iris  diaphragm. 

Simple  Microscope.  A  pocket  lens  will  answer  the  purpose,  but  an 
instrument  with  a  stage  and  adjustable  arm  for  the  lenses  is  much  more 
convenient. 

Turn-table  with  centering  pins  for  ringing  permanent  mounts. 

Section  Razor.    This    should   be  plano-concave    and   have  a   keen, 


APPARATUS.  7 

thin  edge  for  cutting  soft  tissues.  Another  razor  with  a  stronger  edge 
is  useful  for  cutting  hard  materials. 

Hone. 

Strop. 

Dissecting-needle  Handles  with  interchangeable  needles. 

Scalpel. 

Forceps  with  fine  points. 

Slides  of  the  usual  size  (3X1  inch)  may  be  obtained  either  of  thick 
or  thin  glass,  as  preferred. 

Cover- glasses.  No.  2  round  cover-glasses  f  inch  in  diameter  are 
recommended  for  both  temporary  and  permanent  mounts. 

Reagent  Bottles  with  stopper  pipettes  ground  into  the  neck. 

Watch-glasses. 

Supplementary  Apparatus.  The  following  accessories,  although  not 
essential  for  ordinary  work,  should  be  in  every  well-appointed  microscopi- 
cal laboratory. 

A  Substage  Condenser  with  an  iris  diaphragm  attached  is  valuable 
in  securing  sufficient  illumination  on  dark  days. 

Polarizing  Apparatus.1  This  apparatus  is  useful  chiefly  in  the  exami- 
nation of  starch  grains,  crystals,  and  thickened  cell-walls.  It  consists 
of  two  Nicol  prisms,  one  (the  polarizer)  mounted  in  the  substage,  the 
other  (the  analyzer)  in  the  tube  or  above  the  eye-piece.  Selenite  plates 
for  use  with  the  polarizing  apparatus  may  be  mounted  either  in  a  revolving 
disk  in  the  substage,  or  in  a  metal  slip  for  use  on  the  stage  under  the 
object-slide.  . 

A  Mechanical  Stage  is  of  service  in  examining  systematically  every 
portion  of  a  mount.  A  detachable  form  is  recommended,  as  there  are 
many  times  when  this  attachment  is  a  hindrance  rather  than  a  convenience. 

Microtome.  This  instrument  is  of  value  in  preparing  uniformly  thin 
sections,  particularly  of  soft  tissues.  In  preparing  a  series  of  sections 
it  is  invaluable.  It  is,  however,  an  instrument  for  special  investigation, 
and  not  for  practical  food  examination. 

Paraffine  Bath.     For  use  in  paraffine  embedding. 

Camera  Lucida.     Useful  in  making  drawings. 

Photomicro graphic  Apparatus.  This  is  especially  useful  in  preparing 
exhibits  for  court  cases. 

1  A  convenient  micropolariscope,  arranged  for  instantly  changing  from  plain  to 
polarized  light  and  vice  versa,  has  been  described  by  the  writer.  Jour.  Appl.  Micros. 
1899,  1,  51. 


REAGENTS. 

The  following  reagents  comprise  all  that  are  needed  for  practical 
work.  Others  which  are  useful  in  special  investigations  are  described 
in  Strasburger's  and  Zimmerman's  works.  (See  Bibliography,  p.  19.) 

Acetic  Acid.  Glacial  or  99  per  cent  acetic  acid  diluted  with  2  parts 
of  water. 

Alcohol.  In  dehydrating  preparations  for  mounting  in  xylol  balsam, 
absolute  alcohol  is  used,  but  for  preserving,  hardening,  and  most  other 
purposes  ordinary  95  per  cent  alcohol  meets  every  requirement. 

Alcanna  Tincture.  Macerate  20  grams  of  alkanet  root  for  several 
days  with  100  cc.  of  water.  Dilute  with  an  equal  volume  of  water  as  used. 

Ammonia  Water.  The  concentrated  solution  containing  about  30 
per  cent  of  ammonia  gas  is  used  in  making  Schweitzer's  reagent  and  for 
some  other  purposes.  For  the  turmeric  test  the  concentrated  solution 
should  be  diluted  with  10  parts  of  water. 

Canada  Balsam  in  Xylol.  The  solution  prepared  ready  for  use  may 
be  obtained  of  all  dealers  in  microscopic  supplies. 

Chloral  Hydrate  Solution.  Dissolve  8  parts  of  chloral  hydrate  in  5 
parts  of  water. 

Chloroform. 

Chlorzinc  Iodine  Solution.  Treat  an  excess  of  zinc  with  hydrochloric 
acid,  evaporate  to  a  specific  gravity  of  1.8,  and  filter  through  asbestos. 
As  needed,  saturate  a  small  portion  of  the  sirupy  liquid  first  with  potas- 
sium iodide  and  finally  with  iodine. 

The  solution  may  also  be  prepared  by  dissolving  30  grams  of  zinc 
chloride,  5  grams  of  potassium  iodide,  and  0.89  gram  of  iodine  in  14  cc. 
of  water.  The  solution  should  be  freshly  prepared,  and  kept  in  a  dark 
place. 

Ether. 

Ferric  Chloride.     Dissolve  i  part  of  the  salt  in  100  parts  of  water. 

Fehling  Solution.  I.  Dissolve  173  grams  of  crystallized  Rochclle 
salts  and  125  grams  of  caustic  potash  in  water  and  make  up  to  500  cc. 
II.  Dissolve  34.64  grams  of  crystallized  copper  sulphate  in  water  and 
make  up  to  500  cc.  Mix  equal  parts  of  I  and  II  as  needed. 


REAGENTS.  9 

Glycerine.  For  use  as  a  mounting  medium,  dilute  with  an  equal  volume 
of  water. 

Glycerine  Jelly  (Kaiser's).  Soak  i  part  of  finest  French  gelatine 
2  hours  in  6  parts  of  distilled  water.  Add  7  parts  of  glycerine,  and  to 
each  100  grams  of  the  mixture,  i  gram  of  strongest  carbolic  acid.  Warm 
for  10  to  15  minutes  with  constant  stirring,  until  the  flakes  from  the  car- 
bolic acid  disappear.  Filter  through  previously  moistened  glass  wool. 
Warm  as  needed,  and  remove  with  a  glass  rod.  Glycerine  jelly  is  sold 
by  all  dealers. 

Glycerine  Gum.  Dissolve  10  grams  of  gum  arabic  and  2  grams  of 
glycerine  in  10  cc.  of  water. 

Hydrochloric  Acid,  Concentrated. 

Iodine  in  Potassium  Iodide.  Dissolve  0.05  gram  of  iodine  and  0.2 
gram  of  potassium  iodide  in  15  cc.  of  water. 

Iodine  Tincture.  Dissolve  in  95  per  cent  alcohol  sufficient  iodine 
to  make  a  light  coffee-colored  solution. 

All  iodine  solutions  deteriorate  on  keeping,  particularly  if  exposed 
to  the  light. 

Labarr ague's  Solution  (chlorinated  soda).  Thoroughly  triturate  75 
grams  of  fresh  chlorinated  lime  (bleaching-powder)  with  600  cc.  of  water, 
added  in  two  or  three  successive  portions,  and  filter.  To  the  filtrate 
add  a  solution  of  150  grams  of  crystallized  sodium  carbonate  in  400  cc. 
of  water,  mix  thoroughly,  warm  if  the  solution  gelatinizes,  and  again 
filter. 

The  solution  gradually  loses  strength  on  standing,  and  should  be 
kept  in  stoppered  bottles  in  a  cool,  dark  place. 

Javelle  Water  (chlorinated  potash)  may  be  prepared  in  the  same 
manner,  substituting  58  grams  of  potassium  carbonate  for  the  sodium 
carbonate.  This  reagent  is  used  for  the  same  purpose  as  Labarraque's 
solution. 

Milton's  Reagent.  Dissolve  metallic  mercury  in  an  equal  weight  of 
concentrated  nitric  acid  and  dilute  with  an  equal  volume  of  water.  The 
solution  should  be  freshly  prepared. 

Nitric  Acid,  Concentrated. 

Olive  Oil. 

Paraffine. 

Phoroglucin  Tincture.  Dissolve  o.i  gram  in  10  cc.  of  95  per  cent 
alcohol.  The  solution  deteriorates  on  keeping. 

Potash   Solution.     Dissolve    5    grams    of   caustic    potash    (potassium 


10  PRELIMINARY. 

hydrate)  in  100  cc.  of  water.  If  desired,  caustic  soda  may  be  substituted 
for  caustic  potash. 

The  term  "alkali "  as  used  in  this  work  refers  to  one  or  the  other  of 
these  solutions. 

Sajranin  Solution.  Prepare  a  saturated  water  solution,  and  dilute  as 
needed. 

Schultze's  Macerating  Mixture.  Mix  a  few  crystals  of  potassium 
chlorate  with  concentrated  nitric  acid  immediately  before  using. 

Schweitzer's  Reagent  ("ammoniacal  copper  solution,"  "cuprammonia," 
"cuoxam").  Precipitate  cupric  oxyhydrate  from  a  solution  of  copper 
sulphate  by  adding  a  slight  excess  of  caustic  soda  or  ammonia,  filter  and 
thoroughly  wash.  Dissolve  the  moist  precipitate  in  strong  ammonia 
with  the  aid  of  heat,  cool,  and  filter  from  the  precipitate  which  forms. 
It  should  be  freshly  prepared,  and  kept  in  the  dark. 

Soda  Solution.  Five  per  cent  solution  of  caustic  soda  (sodium  hydrate) 
may  be  substituted  for  potash  solution  as  a  clearing  agent.  In  the  crude- 
fiber  process,  and  for  removing  dark  coloring  matters,  i\  per  cent  solu- 
tion is  used. 

Sulphuric  Acid.  The  concentrated  acid  is  employed  in  several  tests. 
It  should  be  diluted  to  ij  per  cent  for  use  in  the  crude-fiber  process. 

Turpentine  (spirits  or  oil  of  turpentine). 

Xylol. 


COLLECTIONS. 

A  collection  of  the  vegetable  materials  used  as  foods  or  food  adulterants 
and  mounts  of  such  materials  are  as  indispensable  to  the  food  microscopist 
as  is  an  herbarium  to  a  systematic  botanist.  Many  points  of  structure  and 
special  reactions  can  be  learned  with  the  aid  of  such  collections  which 
cannot  be  properly  described  in  words  or  illustrated  by  figures. 

Standard  Materials.  The  collection  should  include  not  only  the 
fruits,  seeds,  barks,  leaves,  rhizomes,  flowers,  and  other  whole  materials, 
but  also  the  various  products  prepared  from  them.  Many  of  these  may 
be  obtained  from  grain  dealers,  grocers,  seedsmen  and  pharmacists, 
others  may  be  collected  in  the  field  or  garden.  Powders  are  conveniently 
stored  in  screw-top  bottles,  which  have  the  advantage  over  glass-  or  cork- 
stoppered  bottles  that  they  more  completely  exclude  dust.  Fruits,  vege- 
tables, and  other  succulent  materials  are  preserved  in  alcohol  or  formalde- 
hyde. Especially  useful  is  the  collection  of  economic  seeds  prepared  under 
the  direction  of  Frederick  V.  Coville,  Botanist  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  by  Gilbert  H.  Hicks,  also  the  cabinet  of  materia 
medica  specimens  supplied  by  Parke,  Davis  and  Company,  Detroit, 
Mich.,  U.  S.  A. 

Microscopic  Mounts.  Powders  such  as  flour,  meal,  and  starch  are 
best  mounted  in  water  as  occasion  demands,  but  sections  and  other  diffi- 
cultly prepared  specimens  should  be  at  hand  in  permanent  form.  The 
collection  of  mounts  may  be  prepared  either  by  the  microscopist  himself, 
or  by  a  skilled  worker  from  material  of  his  selection.  At  present  suitable 
collections  of  mounts  are  not  on  the  market 

ii 


PREPARATION    OF   MATERIALS    FOR 
EXAMINATION. 

MECHANICAL  PREPARATION. 

Cross-sections.  In  studying  standard  material  cross -sections  are 
indispensable,  as  they  show  the  number  and  arrangement  of  the  cell 
layers  and  certain  details  of  structure.  Longitudinal  and  tangential  sec- 
tions are  of  lesser  importance.  Sections  are  also  useful  in  the  examina- 
tion of  coarsely  ground  commercial  products,  such  as  ground  coffee  and 
other  materials  containing  fragments  large  enough  for  cutting.  It  should 
be  remembered,  however,  that  sections  play  a  comparatively  unimpor- 
tant role  in  diagnosis,  as  most  of  the  materials  which  the  microscopist  is 
called  upon  to  examine  are  fine  powders  and  other  preparations  in  which 
the  tissues  have  been  torn  one  from  another,  and  can  only  be  studied  in 
surface  view  or  as  isolated  elements. 

Considerable  discretion  is  required  in  the  treatment  preliminary  to  the 
cutting  of  sections.  As  a  rule,  dried  materials  are  best  cut  after  soaking 
in  water  for  some  hours  or  until  thoroughly  softened,  although  cruciferous 
seeds  and  some  other  materials  are  best  cut  dry.  Succulent  fruits  and 
other  fresh  materials  should  be  hardened  in  50  per  cent  alcohol.  Only 
in  the  investigation  of  very  delicate  tissues  is  it  desirable  to  resort  to  the 
tedious  process  of  impregnating  with  paraffine  or  collodion. 

Large  objects  are  held  between  the  thumb  and  first  finger  during  cut- 
ting, small  objects  between  pieces  of  elder  pith,  sticks  of  soft  wood,  or 
in  a  hand  vise,  or  else  they  are  embedded  in  paraffine  or  glycerine  gum. 
Wood  for  holding  materials  during  cutting  should  be  sawed  across  the  grain 
into  sticks  so  that  the  razor  or  microtome  knife  will  cut  with  the  grain. 

Glycerine  gum  is  used  not  merely  to  embed  the  object,  but  also  to 
attach  it  to  a  piece  of  elder  pith.  The  sections  are  cut  after  the  gum 
has  hardened. 

Paraffine  may  be  used  not  only  for  dry  materials,  whether  or  not 
impregnated  with  paraffine  as  described  below,  but  also  for  fresh  material 
or  material  softened  in  water,  provided  the  outer  surface  is  carefully  dried 


12 


PREPARATION  OF  MATERIALS  FOR  EXAMINATION.  13 

to  insure  contact.  It  should  have  a  melting-point  of  54°  or  74°  C.,  and 
is  conveniently  molded  into  sticks  by  melting  at  the  lowest  possible 
temperature  and  pouring  slowly  into  a  glass  or  metal  tube.  The  stick 
may  be  loosened  from  the  tube  by  gentle  heating.  The  object  is  introduced 
into  a  cavity  in  the  end  of  the  stick,  and  the  paraffine  melted  about  it 
with  a  hot  wire  or  needle. 

The  section  razor  used  for  cutting  soft  objects  should  have  a  keen, 
thin  edge,  but  for  cutting  nut  shells  and  other  hard  tissues  another  razor 
with  a  beveled  edge  should  be  in  readiness.  Both  are  kept  in  order 
by  honing  and  stropping. 

The  microtome  is  a  convenience  but  not  a  necessity,  being  used  almost 
exclusively  in  preparing  permanent  mounts  for  the  collection  or  in  diffi- 
cult investigations.  Many  food  microscopists  use  only  a  razor. 

Impregnating  and  Embedding  with  Paraffine  or  Collodion  is  best  carried 
out  with  material  preserved  while  fresh  in  50  per  cent  alcohol,  although 
dry  material  may  be  soaked  in  water  until  the  tissues  are  softened  and 
then  transferred  to  50  per  cent  alcohol.  To  facilitate  the  process,  seeds 
and  small  fruits  should  be  cut  in  half,  and  other  materials  in  as  small 
pieces  as  practicable. 

In  carrying  out  the  paraffine  process  the  object  is  immersed  successively 
in  the  following:  65,  80,  and  95  per  cent  alcohol,  absolute  alcohol,  a  mix- 
ture of  equal  parts  of  xylol  and  absolute  alcohol,  xylol,  a  mixture  of  xylol 
and  paraffine  (melting  at  43°  C.),  43°  paraffine  kept  at  50°,  and  finally 
54°  paraffine  kept  at  60°.  The  time  required  for  permeation  in  each  of 
these  varies,  according  to  the  size  and  nature  of  the  object,  from  one  to 
several  days.  Finally  the  object  is  removed  from  the  paraffine  to  a  suit- 
able mold,  covered  with  melted  paraffine,  and  allowed  to  cool. 

If  the  collodion  process  is  followed,  the  object  is  treated  with  50,  65, 
80,  and  95  per  cent  alcohol  and  absolute  alcohol  as  above  described,  but 
is  removed  from  the  latter  to  absolute  ether,  then  to  a  mixture  of  ether 
and  collodion,  and  finally  to  pure  collodion.  It  is  then  transferred  to 
a  paper  mould,  covered  with  collodion,  and,  when  the  latter  has 
solidified,  the  whole  is  placed  in  80  per  cent  alcohol,  where  the  collodion 
in  some  hours  forms  a  cartilaginous  mass  enveloping  the  object. 

Sections  of  fruit  stones  and  nutshells  are  cut  with  a  fine  saw  and  after 
being  attached  to  a  slide  by  hot  Canada  balsam  are  ground  down  to  the 
desired  thickness  on  a  whetstone.  They  are  finally  mounted  in  balsam. 

Surface  Sections  are  useful  in  studying  epidermal  tissues,  fruit  and  seed 
coats,  and  other  cell  aggregates  forming  distinct  layers.  They  are  much 


14  PRELIMINARY. 

easier  to  prepare  than  cut  sections.  Dried  materials  should  be  soaked 
in  water,  after  which  the  layers  may  usually  be  removed  by  scraping  or 
stripping.  The  separation  of  the  coats  from  very  small  seeds  is  often 
facilitated  by  soaking  for  some  hours  in  dilute  (i  J  per  cent)  caustic  soda. 
Boiling  with  dilute  soda  is  sometimes  desirable,  particularly  if  the  layers 
contain  coloring  matters  which  render  them  opaque.  The  epidermal 
layers  of  fruits  can  often  be  separated  by  plunging  into  boiling-hot  water. 

The  bran  coats  of  cereals,  the  seed  coats  of  legumes,  and  oil  seeds, 
and  the  various  layers  of  spices  and  other  materials  may  be  studied  in 
fragments  picked  out  from  the  coarsely  ground  products  with  forceps  or 
separated  by  sifting.  Even  in  quite  finely  ground  products  one  often 
finds  large  enough  fragments  for  studying  in  surface  view  not  only  the 
characters  of  the  individual  cells,  but  also  the  arrangement  of  the  cells 
in  the  layers. 

The  different  layers  in  surface  sections  may  become  separated  from 
one  another  or  they  may  remain  in  their  original  position  one  on  top  of 
another.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  often  possible  by  careful  focusing  not 
only  to  study  successively  the  layers,  but  also  to  determine  their  order  of 
arrangement.  This  is  greatly  facilitated  by  noting  in  preparing  the 
mount  whether  the  outer  or  the  inner  surface  is  uppermost,  and  also  by 
comparison  with  cross-sections.  Some  materials  which  have  no  very 
characteristic  single  layer  can  be  identified  by  the  combination  of  several 
cell  layers  and  their  order  of  arrangement. 

Powders.  Since  the  food  microscopist  is  called  upon  to  examine 
powders  more  often  than  any  other  class  of  products,  he  should  familiarize 
himself  with  the  microscopic  characters  of  standard  materials  in  powder 
form.  Tissues  in  definite  layers,  such  as  epidermal  cells,  the  bran  coats 
of  cereals,  and  the  coats  of  various  seeds,  have  much  the  same  appear- 
ance in  the  ground  material  as  in  surface  preparations ;  except  that  in 
fine  powders  the  fragments  are  smaller,  and  radially  elongated  elements, 
such  as  the  palisade  cells  of  legumes  and  cotton  seed,  often  fall  on  their 
sides,  presenting  the  same  appearance  as  in  cross-section.  Cells  not  in 
layers,  such  as  make  up  the  endosperm  of  cereals  and  the  cotyledons  of 
legumes,  do  not  present  a  striking  appearance  in  powder  form,  although 
the  contents  of  their  cells,  being  liberated  by  the  rupture  of  the  cell-walls, 
may  be  studied  to  advantage.  Stone  cells,  vessels,  and  other  detachable 
elements  are  also  striking  objects  in  powders. 

Commercial  Powders  should  first  be  examined  under  a  simple  micro- 
scope, either  before  or  after  separation  into  grades  by  sifting,  and  fragments 


PREPARATION  OF  MATERIALS  FOR  EXAMINATION,  15 

picked  out  for  subsequent  examination  under  the  compound  microscope. 
Mounts  representing  the  whole  material  should  also  be  made.  If  the 
powder  is  too  coarse  for  mounting  directly,  it  may  be  reduced  to  an  im- 
palpable powder  in  an  iron  mortar,  or  a  small  portion  may  be  crushed  on 
the  slide  with  a  scalpel. 

Special  instructions  for  the  examination  of  flour  are  given  on  p.  54, 
of  cereal  cattle  foods  on  p.  59,  of  ground  oil  cakes  on  p.  171,  and  of 
ground  spices  on  p.  497. 

Pulps.  The  flesh  of  ripe  fruits  may  be  examined  as  a  pulp,  hard 
elements,  such  as  vessels  and  stone  cells,  being  especially  distinct  in  such 
preparations.  The  same  method  is  used  for  commercial  jams,  jellies, 
pastes,  etc. 

Maceration  by  Schultze's  method  is  useful  in  reducing  hard  materials 
to  a  pulp,  thus  isolating  the  elements.  The  process  consists  in  cautiously 
heating  a  small  amount  of  the  material  in  a  capsule  with  concentrated 
nitric  acid  and  a  few  crystals  of  potassium  chlorate.  As  soon  as  the 
tissues  are  sufficiently  disintegrated,  the  solution  is  diluted  with  water  and 
the  fragments  washed  thoroughly  by  decantation. 

TREATMENT   WITH    REAGENTS. 

Mounting  in  Water.  Although  water  is  usually  regarded  as  an 
inert  substance,  it  serves  in  microscopic  work  as  the  most  important 
of  all  reagents ;  in  fact,  if  we  had  no  other  we  would  still  be  able  to  carry 
on  our  work  with  reasonable  success. 

Water  dissolves  sugars,  gums,  certain  proteids,  and  other  cell-contents, 
and  in  addition  swells  and  partially  dissolves  constituents  of  the  cell-walls. 
Most  of  these  soluble  substances  have  no  marked  microscopic  characters, 
whereas  the  insoluble  constituents,  including  starch  and  calcium  oxalate 
among  cell-contents,  and  cellulose,  lignin,  suberin,  and  cutin  of  cell-wall 
constituents,  occur  in  striking  and  often  highly  characteristic  forms. 
For  these  reasons  water  is  especially  suited  as  a  microscopic  medium, 
although  it  cannot  of  course  be  used  for  permanent  mounts. 

In  the  water  mount  we  first  observe  whether  starch  is  present,  and 
if  so,  note  the  characters  of  the  grains.  Addition  of  iodine  solution  dif- 
ferentiates the  starch  grain  from  other  bodies.  We  next  turn  our  atten- 
tion to  the  other  elements,  particularly  the  tissues.  Starch,  if  present 
in  considerable  amount,  obscures  the  tissues,  but  can  be  converted 
into  a  paste  and  thus  rendered  transparent  by  heating  the  mount  to  boiling 


c 

1 6  PRELIMINARY. 

over  a  lamp,  replacing  the  water  lost  by  evaporation.  This  boiling, 
which  takes  the  place  of  treatment  with  alkali,  chloral,  or  other  clearing 
agents,  also  renders  the  tissues  more  distinct  by  swelling  the  cell- walls. 

Air  bubbles  may  be  removed  from  a  section  by  soaking  in  a  considerable 
amount  of  recently  boiled  water. 

Treatment  with  Iodine  colors  the  starch  grains  of  water  mounts  blue, 
proteid  matter  yellow-brown,  and  cellulose,  lignin,  and  other  cell-wall 
substances  various  shades  of  yellow. 

The  solution  in  potassium  iodide  acts  more  rapidly  than  the  tincture, 
coloring  the  starch  grains  a  deeper  shade  of  blue. 

If  the  tincture  is  added  directly  to  the  dry  or  alcohol  material,  starch 
grains  are  colored  brown-yellow,  changing  to  blue  on  dilution  with  water. 

Treatment  with  iodine  and  then  with  strong  sulphuric  acid  colors 
cellulose  blue,  lignified,  suberized,  and  cuticularized  tissues  yellow.  Chlor- 
zinc  iodine  gives  much  the  same  color  reactions  as  iodine  and  sulphuric 
acid,  and  is  more  convenient.  The  best  results  are  secured  if  the  prepara- 
tion is  first  soaked  in  water. 

Treatment  with  Oil  Solvents.  Products  containing  a  large  amount 
of  fat,  oil,  or  essential  oil  can  be  studied  to  advantage  only  after  treatment 
with  chloroform,  ether,  turpentine,  or  some  other  oil  solvent.  Sections 
may  be  soaked  in  the  solvent  in  a  covered  watch-glass,  and  powders  may 
be  extracted  on  a  filter  or  in  a  fat  extractor.  More  convenient  methods, 
provided  subsequent  treatment  with  reagents  is  not  needed,  are  to  mount 
the  section  or  powder  directly  in  turpentine,  which  dissolves  the  oil,  or  else 
in  olive  or  almond  oil  which  mix  with  the  oil  of  the  product.  These 
methods  are  especially  useful  in  the  study  of  aleurone  grains. 

Clearing.  Alkalies  (potassium  or  sodium  hydrate)  are  the  most 
serviceable  clearing  agents  for  general  use.  The  treatment  may  be  per- 
formed on  the  slide  either  by  mounting  directly  in  dilute  alkali  or  by  adding 
a  small  drop  of  5  per  cent  alkali  to  a  water  mount,  or  in  the  case  of  dark- 
colored  tissues  by  boiling  with  ij  per  cent  caustic  soda. 

Alkali  dissolves  starch,  proteids,  various  coloring  matters  and  other 
cell-contents.  It  also  swells  the  cell- walls,  and  to  some  extent  expands 
compressed  tissues. 

Chloral  Hydrate  acts  more  slowly  than  potash  and  soda,  but  has  the 
advantage  that  it  does  not  distort  greatly  the  tissues. 

Labarraque  Solution  (chlorinated  soda)  and  Javelle  Water  (chlorinated 
potash)  are  admirable  reagents  for  bleaching  tissues  and  expanding  com- 
pressed cells-  Thev  are  particularly  adapted  for  sections,  but  owing  to 


PREPARATION  OF  MATERIALS  FOR  EXAMINATION.  17 

the  difficulty  of  removing  the  bubbles,  are  less  suited  for  powders.  Sec- 
tions should  be  soaked  in  the  reagents  (diluted  if  necessary)  until  the 
desired  result  is  attained,  and  then  washed  in  water  and  finally  in  very 
dilute  acetic  acid.  They  become  so  transparent  by  this  treatment  that 
staining  with  safranin  or  some  other  dye  is  usually  essential. 

Crude  Fiber  Method.  This  process  serves  not  merely  for  the  quan- 
titative determination  of  crude  fiber,  but  also  for  clearing  the  tissues 
for  microscopic  examination.  After  weighing  the  crude  fiber  a  small 
quantity  may  be  removed  for  examination  without  introducing  a  per- 
ceptible error  in  the  subsequent  determination  of  ash.  The  action  is 
so  energetic  as  to  destroy  delicate  tissues ;  but  is  valuable  in  clearing  stone 
cells  and  other  sclerenchyma  elements. 

The  process  (which  may  be  abbreviated  if  used  merely  for  clearing) 
is  as  follows:  Extract  2  grams  of  the  finely  ground  material  with  ether, 
place  in  a  500  cc.  Erlenmeyer  flask,  and  add  200  cc.  of  boiling  1.25 
per  cent  sulphuric  acid.  Loosely  cover  the  flask,  heat  at  once  to  boiling, 
and  boil  gently  thirty  minutes.  Filter  on  a  paper,  wash  with  hot  water, 
and  rinse  back  into  the  same  flask  with  200  cc.  of  boiling  1.25  per  cent 
sodium  hydroxide  solution  nearly  free  from  carbonate.  After  boiling, 
as  before,  for  thirty  minutes,  collect  the  fiber  on  a  weighed  paper,  thor- 
oughly wash  with  hot  water,  and  finally  with  a  little  alcohol  and  ether. 
Dry  to  constant  weight  at  100°  C.,  and  weigh.  Deduct  the  amount 
of  ash  in  the  fiber,  as  determined  by  incineration,  from  the  total 
weight. 

Staining.  Great  numbers  of  stains  have  come  into  use  for  staining 
cell-walls  and  cell-contents. 

Safranin,  a  stain  strongly  recommended  by  Strasburger,  has  the  advan- 
tage over  most  other  stains  in  that  it  differentiates  very  beautifully  the 
tissues,  and  does  not,  like  most  coal-tar  colors,  fade  in  glycerine  mounts. 
The  best  results  are  secured  by  soaking  the  section  for  some  time  in  a 
rather  dilute  water  solution.  Overstaining,  with  subsequent  removal 
of  the  excess  with  alcohol,  is  often  advantageous. 

Treatment  with  Other  Reagents  is  carried  on  in  a  watch-glass,  or  on  the 
slide,  as  occasion  demands.  In  the  latter  case  the  material  is  either 
treated  directly  with  a  drop  of  the  reagent,  or  it  is  first  mounted  in  water, 
and  a  drop  of  the  reagent  is  drawn  under  the  cover-glass  by  means  of  a 
piece  of  filter-paper  placed  on  the  opposite  side. 

Sections  of  impregnated  material  are  attached  to  a  slide  by  means 
of  Meyer's  albumen  fixative,  then  soaked  in  chloroform  or  xylol  until 


1 8  PRELIMINARY. 

the  paraffine  is  dissolved,  and  finally  treated  with  reagents  and  stains 
ad  libitum. 

Permanent  Mounting.  The  technical  microscopist,  as  well  as  the 
investigator,  often  has  occasion  to  mount  in  permanent  form  objects 
of  special  interest.  If  the  material  contains  a  large  amount  of  oil,  or  if 
it  has  been  impregnated  with  paraffine,  these  should  be  removed  by 
treatment  with  chloroform,  xylol,  or  other  oil  solvent.  Objects  which 
have  been  cleared  with  alkali  or  Labarraque's  solution  should  be  washed 
thoroughly  in  water  and  finally  in  very  dilute  acetic  acid.  Most  other 
reagents  can  be  removed  by  water  or  alcohol.  Staining  is  advisable  if 
the  tissues  are  both  colorless  and  transparent,  and  is  essential  if  Canada 
balsam  is  employed  as  the  mounting  medium.  Air  bubbles  may  be  re- 
moved by  boiling  or  allowing  to  soak  in  a  considerable  bulk  of  freshly 
boiled  water.  Slides  and  cover-glasses  must  be  scrupulously  clean  and 
free  from  finger  prints. 

The  process  of  mounting  is  quite  simple.  A  suitable  sized  drop  of 
the  mounting  medium  is  placed  in  the  center  of  the  slide,  the  object  is 
transferred  to  this,  and  the  cover-glass  is  placed  in  position  by  means 
of  forceps.  If  too  much  of  the  medium  is  used,  the  excess  is  removed 
with  a  piece  of  filter-paper;  if  too  little,  more  is  added  from  one  side. 
The  mount  is  finally  ringed  with  two  or  more  coats  of  cement. 

It  is  well  to  keep  the  slide  on  the  turn-table  not  only  during  ringing, 
but  also  while  mounting,  thus  facilitating  the  centering  of  both  object 
and  cover-glass. 

Mounting  in  Glycerine.  A  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  glycerine  and  water 
is  the  best  single  medium  for  our  purpose,  since  wet  objects  may  usually 
be  mounted  directly  without  staining  or  dehydrating,  and  can  be  removed 
at  any  time  for  further  treatment  with  reagents. 

The  mounting  is  greatly  facilitated  by  so  gauging  the  size  of  the  drop 
that  it  exactly  fills  the  space  beneath  the  cover-glass.  If  more  is  added, 
or  an  excess  removed,  care  should  be  taken  to  clean  thoroughly  the  slide 
about  the  cover-glass  with  a  filter-paper,  otherwise  the  cement  will  not 
stick  to  the  glass.  The  mount  should  be  ringed  two  or  three  times  with 
a  good  cement,  allowing  it  to  dry  at  least  24  hours  between  the  coats.1 

Mounting  in  Glycerine  Jelly  requires  less  skill  than  mounting  in  glyc- 
erine, but  the  heating  necessitated  by  the  process  injures  some  materials, 

1  The  writer  uses  "King's  Transparent  Cement"  for  the  first  coat,  and  "King's  Lacquer 
Cell  and  Finish"  (red  or  blue)  or  "White  Zinc  Cement"  for  the  finishing  coats,  the  three 
colors  being  used  to  distinguish  respectively  cross,  surface,  and  longitudinal  sections. 


PREPARATION  OF  MATERIALS  FOR  EXAMINATION.  19 

and,  furthermore,  the  objects  are  not  so  readily  removed  should  occasion 
demand. 

A  small  cube  of  the  solid  or  a  drop  of  the  melted  jelly  is  placed  on  the 
slide  and  heated  gently  until  fluid  throughout.  The  object,  which  may 
be  taken  from  water  or  glycerine,  is  then  introduced,  and  the  cover-glass, 
previously  warmed  to  prevent  introduction  of  air  bubbles,  is  placed  in 
position.  After  cooling,  the  excess  of  the  jelly  should  be  carefully  removed, 
and  the  mount  ringed,  as  described  for  glycerine  mounts. 

Mounting  in  Canada  Balsam  can  be  carried  out  only  with  objects  freed 
from  water.  Dehydration  is  effected  by  soaking  in  95  per  cent  alcohol, 
absolute  alcohol,  and  finally  in  xylol,  chloroform,  or  oil  of  cloves.  Stain- 
ing is  essential  for  objects  with  colorless  tissues. 

A  drop  of  the  xylol  balsam  is  placed  in  the  center  of  the  slide,  the 
object  is  introduced,  and  the  whole  is  covered  with  a  slightly  warmed 
cover-glass.  More  balsam  is  added  if,  after  standing,  the  space  under 
the  cover-glass  is  not  entirely  filled.  After  the  balsam  has  thoroughly 
hardened,  the  excess  may  be  removed  and  the  mount  ringed  with  colored 
cement;  this,  however,  is  not  essential,  for  the  mount  is  permanent  with- 
out it. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.1 

BEHRENS:  Guide  to  the  Microscope  in  Botany  (Trans,  by  Hervey).    Boston,  1885. 

CHAMBERLAIN:  Methods  in  Plant  Histology.     Chicago,  1901. 

LEE:  The  Microtomist's  Vade  Mecum.     Philadelphia,  1900. 

STRASBURGER  and  HILLHOUSE:  Handbook  of  Practical  Botany.    London,  1900. 

ZIMMERMANN:  Botanical  Microtechnique  (Trans,  by  Humphrey)      New  York,  1901. 

1  Works  in  English. 


THE   PRINCIPAL   HISTOLOGICAL   ELEMENTS. 

TISSUES. 

Parenchyma  (Fig.  i)  is  a  general  term  for  the  simpler  forms  of  tissues, 
with  thin  walls  composed  usually  of  cellulose.  The  common  types  of 
parenchyma  cells  are  either  isodiametric  or  somewhat  elongated,  and 
may  or  may  not  have  intercellular  spaces  at  the  angles.  If  the  walls  are 


FIG.  i. 


Parenchyma  from  the  stem  of  maize,     gw  double  wall  between  two  cells;   z  inter- 
cellular space  produced  by  splitting  of  the  double  wall.     (SACHS.) 


of  cellulose,  chlorzinc  iodine  colors  them  blue  and  Schweitzer's  reagent 
dissolves  them. 

Spongy  Parenchyma  (Fig.  2)  is  a  loose  spongy  tissue  with  numerous 
intercellular  spaces  of  considerable  size. 

Collenchyma  (Fig.  3)  is  characterized  by  conspicuous  thickenings  at 
the  angles  of  the  cells.  The  cell-wall  is  composed  of  cellulose,  or  a  modi- 
fication known  as  collenchym.  This  form  of  tissue  occurs  most  com- 
monly in  subepidermal  layers. 

Sclerenchyma  includes  a  great  variety  of  tissues  with  thickened  walls 
composed  chiefly  of  lignin.  The  walls  of  these  cells  as  first  formed 
are  pure  cellulose,  lignin  being  deposited  on  the  inner  surface  of  the 
walls  during  subsequent  growth.  Chlorzinc  iodine  colors  the  walls  yellow 


20 


THE  PRINCIPAL   HISTOLOGICAL   ELEMENTS.  21 

or  yellow-brown;  phloroglucin  and  hydrochloric  acid,  pink;    aniline  sul- 
phate, deep  yellow. 

Stone  Cells  (Fig.  4)  are  isodiametric,  or  moderately  elongated  scleren- 
chyma  elements,  with  thickened  walls  and  conspicuous  pores.  They 
occur  either  singly  or  in  groups  in  parenchyma,  or  form  dense  tissues, 
such  as  the  shell  of  the  cocoanut  and  the  stone  of  the  peach. 


FlG.  2.     Spongy  Parenchyma  from  the  hull         FIG.  3.     Epidermis  and  CoDenchyma 
(spermoderm)     of     the     common     pea.  from    the    petiole    of    Begonia,     v 

(MoELLER.)  thickened  wall  of  collenchyma;   chl 

chlorophyl  grains.     (SACHS.) 

Sclerenchyma  Fibers  (Fig.  5)  occur  in  various  parts  of  plants.  Those 
found  in  fibro- vascular  bundles  are  known  as  Bast  Fibers. 

Other  sclerenchyma  tissues  are  found  in  stems,  leaves,  the  coats  of 
fruits  and  seeds,  and  in  various  organs. 

Epidermal  Tissues  have  certain  characteristics  peculiar  to  their  posi- 
tion. They  are  usually  covered  by  a  membrane  known  as  the  "cuticle," 
composed  of  cutin,  a  substance  related  to  lignin  and  suberin.  Wax, 
silica,  calcium  carbonate,  and  calcium  oxalate  also  occur  as  epidermal 
incrustations. 

Stomata  are  made  up  of  peculiarly  differentiated  epidermal  cells. 
(See  pp.  28-30.) 

Hairs  and  Glands,  including  many  beautiful  and  characteristic  forms, 
are  unicellular  or  multicellular  outgrowths  of  epidermal  layers. 


22 


PRELIMINARY. 


Cork  Cells  form  protective  layers  on  stems  and  other  parts.  The 
cells  are  arranged  in  radial  rows,  and  are  polygonal  in  surface  view,  quadri- 
lateral in  section.  Suberin,  the  characteristic  constituent,  is  repellent  of 
water. 

Fibro-vascular  Bundles  (Figs.  6  and  25).  The  conducting  elements 
of  plants  are  commonly  grouped  into  vascular  or  fibro- vascular  bundles,  of 
which  the  nerves  of  leaves  and  the  strands  of  stems  and  roots  are  examples. 


FIG.  4. 


Stone  Cells  from  the  shell  of  the 
cocoanut.     (WiNTON.) 


FIG.  5.     Bast  Fibers  from  the  bark 
of  Sambitcus  nigra.     (VoGL.) 


A  bundle  is  made  up  of  two  distinct  parts:  (i)  the  xylem,  wood  or  had- 
rome,  consisting  of  vessels,  tracheids,  and  other  lignified  elements,  and 
(2)  the  phloem,  bast  or  leptome,  consisting  of  sieve  tubes,  cambiform 
cells,  and  other  n  on -lignified  elements. 

Groups  of  bast  fibers  usually  accompany  the  bundles. 

For  details  as  to  the  arrangement  of  xylem  and  phloem  see  pp.  39-45. 

The  Vessels  of  the  xylem,  also  known  as  ducts  and  tracheae,  are  thin- 
walled  tubes  with  annular,  spiral,  scalariform  or  reticulated  thickenings, 
or  thick- walled  tubes  with  pits  or  pores. 

Tracheids  resemble  vessels  in  their  markings,  but  consist  of  rows  of 
cells  placed  end  to  end,  not  open  tubes. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  HISTOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS. 


23 


Sieve  Tubes,  the  characteristic  elements  of  the  phloem,  are  thin-walled, 
elongated  cells,  with  perforated  transverse  partitions  known  as  sieve  plates. 
These  sieve  plates  also  occur  to  some  extent  on  the  longitudinal  walls. 
Both  the  sieve  tubes  and  the  accompanying  cambiform  cells  are  com- 
posed of  cellulose. 

Bast  Fibers  (Fig.  5)  are  long,  pointed  cells  with  lignified  walls.  Pores 
through  which  pass  diagonal,  crossing  fissures  are  usually  evident. 


ste 


FIG.  6.  Fibro-vascular  Bundle  from  the  mesocarp  of  the  cocoanut,  in  longitudinal  section. 
ste  stegmata;  Si  silicious  body;  /  bast  fibers;  t  tracheids  with  small  pits;  tr  tracheids 
with  large  pits;  sp  spiral  vessel;  r  reticulated  vessel;  sc  scalariform  vessel;  5  sieve 
tube;  c  and  c'  cambiform  cells.  (WiNTON.) 

Latex  Tubes  (Fig.  341).  These  are  branching  tubes  containing  milky 
secretions,  found  in  various  stems  and  roots,  and  occasionally  in  fruits. 

CELL-CONTENTS. 

Protoplasm,  the  living  matter  of  the  vegetable  cell,  includes:  (i)  cyto- 
plasm, which  in  the  growing  stage  is  a  viscous,  stringy,  more  or  less  granu- 
lar substance,  but  in  the  dried  material  has  no  marked  characters ;  (2)  the 
cell  nucleus,  a  rounded  body  differentiated  by  staining  and  often  evident 
without;  and  (3)  the  plastids  or  chromatophores,  including  the  chloro- 
plasts,  leucoplasts,  and  chromoplasts. 

Chloroplasts,  or  chlorophyl  grains,  occur  in  all  green  parts,  and  play 
an  important  r61e  in  assimilation  (p.  29.) 

Leucoplasts  are  inconspicuous,  colorless  bodies  instrumental  in  the 
formation  of  starch  (p.  644), 


24  PRELIMINARY. 

Chromoplasts  are  orange  or  yellow  bodies  of  various  shapes  to  which 
certain  organs  owe  their  distinctive  color. 

Proteids  occur  either  in  amorphous  form  or  as  aleurone  grains.  On 
heating  with  Millon's  reagent  they  form  a  reddish  deposit;  on  treatment 
with  iodine  solution  they  are  colored  yellow  or  brown. 

Aleurone  Grains  (Fig.  7)  are  found  in  the  perisperm,  endosperm,  and 
embryo  of  seeds,  particularly  oil  seeds,  and  like  starch  grains  have  marked 


FIG.  7.     Aleurone  Grains;  in  the  center  two  cells  filled  with  aleurone  grains.     (T.  HARTIG.) 

microscopic  characters,  which  are  often  characteristic  of  the  species 
or  genus.  These  grains  vary  in  size  from  less  than  i  /j.  to  over  50  p.. 
Among  the  numerous  shapes  are  round,  oval,  irregularly  swollen,  angular, 
and  warty  forms.  They  are  colored  yellow  or  brown  by  iodine  solution 
and  take  up  readily  certain  aniline  dyes,  haematoxylin,  and  other  stains. 
Being  partly  soluble  in  water,  they  should  be  mounted  either  in  glyc- 
erine after  extraction  of  the  oil  in  which  they  are  often  embedded,  or 
directly  in  oil  or  turpentine.  Each  grain  consists  of  a  ground  substance, 
in  which  are  usually  embedded  one  or  more  crystalloids,  one  or  more 
globoids,  and  often  a  crystal  rosette  of  calcium  oxalate,  the  whole  being 
inclosed  in  a  thin  membrane. 

1.  The  ground  substance  consists  of  amorphous  proteid  matter,  and  is 
usually  soluble  in  water,  although  after  previous  standing  in  alcohol  it 
dissolves  slowly.     It  is  also  soluble  in  dilute  alkali,  acids,  and  various 
reagents,  but  is  not  affected  by  oil  or  oil  solvents. 

2.  Crystalloids  are  proteid  crystals  belonging  to  the  isometric  or  hex- 
agonal system.     In  some  species  they  are  so  large  that  a  single  crystalloid 
makes  up  the  bulk  of  the  grain,  in  others  they  are  very  minute.     For  the 
most  part  they  are  insoluble  in  cold  water,  but  dissolve  in  very  dilute  alkali 
(less  than  i  per  cent),  dilute  acetic  or  hydrochloric  acid.     They  are  insol- 


THE  PRINCIPAL  HISTOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS.  25 

uble  in  saturated  solution  of  picric  acid  (distinction  from  globoids)  and 
in  saturated  solution  of  sodium  phosphate  (distinction  from  all  other  con- 
stituents of  the  grains). 

3.  Globoids,  according  to  Pfeffer,  consist  of  lime  and  magnesia  combined 
with  phosphoric  acid  and  an  organic  acid.     They  are  usually  globular, 
of  uniform  transparent  structure,  and  are  not  colored  by  iodine  solution. 
They  are  insoluble  in  both  cold  and  hot  water,  but  unlike  crystalloids  are 
soluble  in  saturated  solutions  of  picric  acid  and  sodium  phosphate  and 
insoluble  in  dilute  potash. 

4.  Calcium  oxalate  occurs  as  single  crystals  or  as  crystal  rosettes. 
These  are  insoluble  in  water,  alkali,  and  acetic  acid,  but  dissolve  readily 
in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid. 

Alkaloids  are  nitrogenous  substances,  often  with  marked  stimulating 
or  toxic  properties.  Some,  such  as  morphine  and  piperine,  are  crystalline 
solids,  others,  such  as  nicotine,  are  liquids.  Caffein  and  theobromin  are 
often  classed  as  alkaloids. 

Starch.     See  pp.  643-650. 

Sugars  occur  in  solution  in  certain  stalks,  roots,  and  fleshy  fruits,  and 
in  the  form  of  crystals  in  dried  fruits.  Crystals  are  readily  seen  in  alcohol 
or  glycerine  mounts  of  raisins,  figs,  dates,  etc. 

Cane-sugar  crystallizes  in  monoclinic  prisms.  It  does  not  reduce 
Fehling  solution. 

Invert-sugar  consists  of  equal  parts  of  dextrose  and  levulose,  and  is 
formed  by  the  splitting  up  or  " inversion"  of  cane-sugar.  In  many  fruits 
both  cane-  and  invert-sugar  are  present,  although  as  a  rule  the  large  fruits 
contain  much  more  cane-sugar  than  the  small  fruits.  As  both  dextrose 
and  levulose  are  reducing  sugars,  they  are  detected  by  heating  the  dry 
object  to  boiling  in  a  drop  of  Fehling  solution  diluted  with  two  drops  of 
water.  The  red  precipitate  of  copper  suboxide  thus  formed  is  often 
evident  to  the  naked  eye. 

Other  sugars  occurring  in  plants  are  rafmose,  mannit,  dulcit,  melitose, 
etc. 

Inulin  is  a  water-soluble  carbohydrate  found  in  the  roots  of  the  dande- 
lion and  other  composite  plants.  In  alcohol  material  it  forms  sphaero- 
crystals;  in  dried  material,  colorless,  irregular  lumps. 

Gums.  These  include  various  mucilaginous  substances,  some  of  which 
are  formed  in  the  cell,  others  are  derived  from  the  cell-walls.  They  swell 
in  water  and  are  precipitated  by  alcohol. 

Glucosides  are  compounds  of  sugars  with  organic  acids.     Some  of 


26 


PRELIMINARY. 


them,  such  as  hesperidin,  form  needle-shaped  crystals  insoluble  both  in 
water  and  dilute  acids. 

Tannins  are  themselves  colorless,  but  are  usually  associated  with 
brown  coloring  substances.  In  the  fresh  material  they  are  in  solution, 
but  on  drying  they  impregnate  the  tissues  or  form  brown  deposits.  With 
iron  salts  they  become  dark  blue  or  green. 

Fats  and  Fatty  Oils  rank  with  carbohydrates  and  proteids  in  impor- 
tance. They  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  plant,  but  are  especially  abundant 
in  certain  seeds,  where  they  serve  as  reserve  material.  The  fats  may  form 
amorphous  masses,  or  beautiful  crystals,  while  the  oils  occur  as  globules. 
Both  are  soluble  in  ether,  chloroform,  benzine,  turpentine,  and  xylol,  and 
form  soaps  with  alkalis.  With  few  exceptions  they  are  insoluble  in  alco- 
hol. On  treatment  for  some  hours  with  alcanna  tincture,  all  fatty  sub- 
stances, as  well  as  resins  and  essential  oils,  take  on  a  beautiful  red  color. 

Waxes  are  closely  related  to  fats. 

Essential  Oils  and  Resins  are  formed  in  glands  or  secretory  cavities, 
and  are  distinguished  from  fats  and  fatty  oils  by  their  solubility  in  alcohol. 


FIG.  8.     Crystals  of  Calcium  Oxalate.     a  large  single  crystal;   c  crystal  rosette   or  cluster; 

b  intermediate  form.     (K.NY.) 

Calcium  Oxalate.  Lime  is  one  of  the  elements  essential  for  plant 
growth,  its  chief  function  being  to  render  poisonous  oxalic  acid  harmless 
by  conversion  into  insoluble  calcium  oxalate.  Monoclinic,  or  rarely 
tetragonal,  crystals  of  this  salt  occur  in  certain  tissues,  and  are  often  of 
great  service  in  diagnosis.  Four  distinct  forms  deserve  special  mention: 
(i)  crystal  clusters  or  rosettes  (Fig.  8,  b  and  c),  (2)  large  single  crystals 
(Fig.  8,  a),  (3)  raphides  or  needle-shaped  crystals  (Fig.  9),  and  (4)  crystal 
sand  or  deposits  of  numerous  minute  crystals  (Fig.  10). 


THE  PRINCIPAL  HISTOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS.  27 

Calcium  oxalate  is  distinguished  from  all  other  crystalline  substances 
by  its  insolubility  in  water,  alkali,  and  acetic  acid,  its  solubility  without 


FIG.  9.     Raphides  of  Calcium  Oxalate         FIG.  10.     Crystal  Sand  of  Calcium  Oxalate 
from    the   flesh   of   the   pineapple.  from  the  leaf  of  belladonna.     (WINTON.) 

(WlNTON.) 

effervescence  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  and  the  formation  of  crystals  of 
calcium  sulphate  with  sulphuric  acid. 

Calcium  Carbonate  is  present  in  certain  plants  as  concretions  or 
cystoliths  (Fig.  169,  cy),  less  often  as  crystals.  It  dissolves  in  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid  with  effervescence. 

Silica  forms  an  incrustation  on  certain  epidermal  tissues,  and  less  often 
occurs  as  warty  bodies  in  peculiar  cells  known  as  stegmata  (Fig.  6,  Si). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.1 

DE  BARY:   Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Vegetative  Organs  of  the  Phanerogams  and 

Ferns  (Trans,  by  Bower  and  Scott).     London,  1884. 
GOODALE  :  Physiological  Botany.  I.  Outlines  of  the  Histology  of  Phaenogamous  Plants. 

New  York,  1885. 
STRASBURGER,  NOEL,  SCHENCK,  and    SCHIMPER:    A  Text-book   of  Botany  (Trans. 

by  Porter  and  revised  by  Lang).     London,  1903. 

1  Works  in  English. 


MORPHOLOGY    OF   ORGANS. 
THE    LEAF. 

Leaves  are  specially  developed  for  carrying  on  three  processes:  (i) 
assimilation  (photosynthesis),  or  the  formation  of  organic  matter  through 
the  agency  of  light  from  carbonic  acid  and  water,  with  exhalation  of 
oxygen;  (2)  respiration,  or  the  oxidation  of  organic  matter,  with  exhala- 
tion of  carbonic  acid;  and  (3)  transpiration,  or  exhalation  of  water  drawn 
up  from  the  soil.  As  a  rule  they  expose  a  large  surface  to  the  air,  and  have 


FlG.  ii.  Leaf  in  Cross  Section  of  Marshmallow  (Althaea  officinalis) .  e  upper  epidermis; 
p  palisade  cells  and  p'  spongy  parenchyma  of  the  mesophyl;  ef  lower  epidermis;  h 
hairs;  d  glandular  hairs;  st  stomata;  K  calcium  oxalate  rosette.  (VoGL.) 

special  adaptations  for  facilitating  or  preventing  communication  with  the 
air,  according  to  the  needs  of  the  plant. 

A  cross-section  of  a  leaf  (Fig.  u)  shows  that  it  is  made  up  of  a  middle 
layer  or  mesophyl  of  green  tissues  with  a  network  of  veins,  between  two 

colorless  cuticularized  epidermal  layers. 

28 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  ORGANS. 


29 


The  Lower  Epidermis  (Fig.  12)  consists  of  ground  cells  interspersed 
with  stomata,  and  often  with  hairs  or  glands.  The  ground  cells  in  surface 
view  differ  greatly  in  character  according  to  the  species.  Some  are  sharply 
polygonal,  or  quadrangular,  with  straight  walls,  others  have  ill-defined 
angles  and  wavy  walls,  and  oth&rs  still  are  irregular  in  outline.  The 
walls  may  be  thin  or  thick,  porous  or  non-porous;  the  cuticle  smooth  or 
wrinkled. 

Stomata  are  slits  between  two  hemi-elliptical  guard  cells,  which  when 
open  allow  free  access  of  air  to  the  mesophyl.  In  some  leaves  two  or  more 
modified  cells,  known  as  accompanying  cells,  adjoin  the  guard  cells.  The 


FIG.  12. 


Epidermis  with  Stomata  from  the  leaf  of  Hydrangea  Hortensia,  in  surface  view. 

(MOELLER.) 


guard  cells  of  the  stomata  are  the  only  cells  of  the  epidermis  containing 
chlorophyl  grains. 

In  addition  to  ordinary  or  air  stomata  a  larger  form  known  as  water 
stomata- occurs  on  some  leaves. 

Hairs  and  Glands  (secretory  hairs)  present  an  endless  variety  of  beau- 
tiful and  characteristic  forms.  All  hairs  whether  unicellular  or  multi- 
cellular  are  epidermal  outgrowths,  but  Emergences  are  made  up  of  tissues 
belonging  both  to  the  epidermis  and  the  mesophyl. 

The  Mesophyl  in  the  under  part  of  the  leaf  forms  a  spongy  parenchyma, 
(Fig.  n,  p')  thus  facilitating  assimilation,  respiration  and  transpiration, 
but  in  the  upper  part  it  is  a  close  tissue,  often  consisting  of  one  or  more 
layers  of  palisade  cells  (p.). 

Chlorophyl  grains  are  present  in  all  the  mesophyl  cells,  but  are  most 
abundant  in  palisade  cells  of  the  upper  layers  (Fig.  n,  p).  They  are 
rounded  bodies  varying  up  to  1 2  /z  in  diameter.  They  consist  of  granules 
(some  green,  others  colorless) ,  proteid  matter  and  starch  grains,  embedded 
in  a  ground  substance  and  surrounded  by  a  membrane.  During  assimila- 


30  PRELIMINARY. 

tion  starch  is  continually  being  formed  in  these  grains,  but  is  soon  dis- 
solved and  translocated  to  other  parts  of  the  plant.  In  dried  leaves  the 
chlorophyl  grains  are  more  or  less  brown  in  color,  and  lack  distinct  char- 
acters. 

The  Fibre-vascular  Bundles  of  leaves  are  strongly  developed  in  the 
midribs  and  main  branches,  but  in  the  smaller  branches  are  rudimentary. 
Spiral  vessels  are  particularly  abundant.  Other  elements  which  may 
occur  in  the  mesophyl  are  stone  cells,  crystal  cells,  resin  cavities,  oil  cells, 
latex  tubes,  etc. 

The  Upper  Epidermis  may  or  may  not  be  similar  to  the  under  epidermis 
in  structure,  but  as  a  rule  stomata  are  less  abundant  or  absent. 

PREPARATION  OF  MATERIALS. 

Sections  are  cut  with  a  razor,  holding  the  leaf  between  pieces  of  pith. 
In  the  case  of  thin  leaves  it  is  advisable  to  cut  into  several  strips,  place 
one  on  the  other,  and  section  all  together.  Pieces  of  the  epidermis  are 
readily  stripped  off  from  moist  leaves  with  forceps.  In  powdered  leaves 
the  elements  are  isolated  by  squeezing  under  the  cover-glass. 

THE  FLOWER. 

Although  the  four  parts  of  the  flower — sepals,  petals,  stamens,  and 
pistils — are  metamorphosed  leaves,  usually  only  the  sepals,  less  often  both 
sepals  and  petals,  resemble  leaves  in  outward  appearance  and  structure. 

Calyx.  The  sepals,  like  leaves,  consist  of  mesophyl  between  two 
epidermal  layers.  Stomata  and  often  hairs  are  developed  on  one  or 
both  epidermal  layers.  The  mesophyl  parenchyma  usually  contains 
chlorophyl,  but  a  well-developed  palisade  layer  is  seldom  present.  Bundles 
are  more  or  less  strongly  developed. 

Corolla.  The  petals  are  of  various  colors  and  commonly  of  delicate 
texture.  Each  consists  of  two  epidermal  layers  and  a  middle  tissue  of 
elongated  parenchyma  (corresponding  to  the  chlorophyl  parenchyma  of 
leaves)  through  which  pass  delicate  bundles.  Stomata  are  usually  lack- 
ing, but  hairs  and  papillae  are  often  present.  Spiral  vessels,  and  less  often 
crystal  fibers,  are  present  in  the  bundles.  The  coloring  matter  of  the 
fresh  petal  is  usually  dissolved  in  the  cell-sap,  seldom  in  the  form  of  chro- 
moplasts.  The  perfume  of  flowers  is  due  to  essential  oils  present  in  the 
cell-sap,  in  special  cavities  (nectaries),  or  in  glands 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  ORGANS. 


31 


Stamens.  Each  consists  of  a  slender,  cylindrical  (less  often  flattened, 
leaf-like)  filament,  bearing  at  the  apex  an  anther  with  a  pair  of  pollen 
sacs  on  each  side  of  the  central  bundle  (Fig.  13).  On  ripening,  the  sacs 


>P 


FIG.  13.     Anther  of  Datura  Stramonium  in  cross  section,     c  connective  tissue  with  fibro- 
vascular  bundle;  a  outer  pollen  sacs;  p  inner  pollen  sacs0 


of  each  pair  unite,  and  finally  the  wall  opens  by  a  slit  or  pore,  liberating 
the  pollen  grains. 

The  walls  of  the  anthers  (Fig.  14)  are  composed  of  an  outer  layer 


FIG.  14.  Anther  Wall  in  cross 
section  showing  the  outer 
epidermis  and  the  endothe- 
cium  with  reticulated  walls. 
(SACHS.) 


FIG.  15.  Pollen  Grains,  i,  2  heath;  3,  4  linden; 
5  blueberry;  6,  7  marjoram;  8,  9  lavender;  10, 
ii  sage;  12,  13  balm;  14,  15  rosemary;  16,  17 
flax;  1 8  white  mullein;  19,  aomelilot;  21  willow 
herb;  22,  23  composite  plants.  (VILLIERS  AND 
COLLIN.) 


or  epidermis,  sometimes  hairy,  and  an  endothecium  or  inner  layer  of  char- 
acteristic cells  with  narrow  radial  ribs  forming  reticulations. 


32 


PRELIMINARY. 


Pollen  Grains  (Fig.  15)  are  mostly  globular,  rounded,  or  tetrahedral, 
either  smooth  or  else  covered  with  warts,  bristles,  or  pits.  They  consist 
of  single  cells  clothed  with  two  membranes ;  the  outer  thick,  forming  a 
kind  of  cuticle;  the  inner  thin,  forming  the  cell-wall  proper.  The  con- 
tents consist  of  protoplasm,  often  with  granules  in  suspension.  When 
the  ripe  pollen  is  deposited  on  the  stigma  the  protoplasmic  contents  burst 


FlG.  1 6.     Pollen  Grains  and  Crystals  of  Cane-sugar  irom  Honey,     a  pollen  grains  of  furze; 
b  of  heath;  c  of  some  composite  flower.     (H  ASS  ALL.) 

out  through  clefts,  or  more  commonly  through  pores,  forming  tubes  which 
penetrate  through  the  tissues  of  the  stigma  and  style  into  the  ovule,  effect- 
ing fertilization.  The  shape,  size,  and  markings  of  pollen  grains  are 
often  so  characteristic  as  to  permit  the  identification  of  the  species,  not 
only  in  powders,  but  also  in  honey,  thus  furnishing  evidence  as  to  the 
flowers  visited  by  the  bee  (Fig.  16). 

The  Pistil  (Fig.  19)  consists  of  stigma,  style,  and  ovary,  the  latter 
enclosing  the  ovules.  The  stigma  is  clothed  with  clammy  papillae,  on 
which  the  pollen  grains  lodge.  The  style  is  long  or  short,  with  a  central 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  ORGANS.  33 

channel.  It  is  made  up  of  elongated  elements.  The  ovary  walls  are 
of  quite  simple  structure,  but  the  fruits  into  which  they  ripen  are  often 
complex. 

THE  FRUIT  (PERICARP  AND  SEED). 

A  fruit  in  its  simplest  form  is  a  ripened  pistil,  consisting  of  pericarp  or 
matured  ovary  wall,  and  one  or  more  seeds  or  matured  ovules.  In  some 
fruits,  notably  the  apple  and  other  pomes,  the  fruit  flesh  is  developed  from 


S 


FIG.  17.  Cocoanut  Fruit.  5*  lower  part  of  axis  forming  the  stem;  A  upper  end  of  axis 
with  scars  of  male  flowers.  Pericarp  consists  of  Epi  epicarp,  Mes  mesocarp  with 
fibers,  and  End  endocarp  or  hard  shell;  T  portion  of  spermoderm  adhering  to  endo- 
sperm; Alb  endosperm  surrounding  cavity  of  the  nut;  K  germinating  eye.  (WiNTON.) 

receptacle  and  ovary  wall.  If  the  flower  has  several  ovaries,  these  on 
ripening  form  an  aggregate  fruit.  A  compound  or  multiple  fruit  consists 
of  the  united  fruits  of  several  flowers.  The  receptacle  of  aggregate  and 
compound  fruits  is  sometimes  fleshy,  forming  the  bulk  of  the  fruit.  Ex- 
amples are  the  strawberry,  an  aggregate  fruit  with  nutlets  on  the  outside 
of  a  fleshy  receptacle,  and  the  fig,  a  compound  fruit  with  nutlets  on  the 
inside  of  a  hollow  receptacle. 

PERICARP. 

The  mature  pericarp  may  be  dehiscent  (e.g.  legumes,  crucifers),  or  inde- 
hiscent,  and  in  the  latter  case  may  be  entirely  fleshy  (e.g.  grape,  banana, 


34 


PRELIMINARY. 


and  other  berries),  entirely  dry  (e.g.  acorn  and  other  nuts),  or  partly 
fleshy  and  partly  dry  (e.g.  peach  and  other  drupes).  It  may  be  distinct 
from  the  seed  or  seeds  (e.g.  peach,  legumes),  or  united  with  the  seed  (e.g. 
cocoanut,  wheat,  and  other  cereals). 


Mes 


'End 


FlG.  1 8.  Coats  of  Bayberry  (Laurus  nobilis)  in  cross  section.  Pericarp  or  fruit  coat 
consists  of  Epi  epicarp,  Mes  mesocarp,  and  End  endocarp;  S  spermoderm,  testa,  or 
seed  coat.  (MOELLER.) 

Since  the  pericarp  is  the  ripened  pistil  and  the  pistil  is  a  metamorphosed 
leaf,  all  three  are  analogous  in  structure,  each  consisting  of  a  middle  layer 
between  two  epidermal  layers.  The  mesocarp,  or  middle  layer  of  fruits, 
is  often  however  more  complex  in  structure  than  the  mesophyl  of  leaves. 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  ORGANS.  35 

The  Epicarp  (Figs.  17  and  18,  Epi)t  or  epidermis  of  the  pericarp, 
consists  of  a  single  layer  of  cells,  often  interspersed  with  hairs  and  rarely 
with  stomata. 

The  Mesocarp  (Figs.  17  and  18,  Mes)  in  some  fruits  forms  a  layer 
several  centimeters  or  even  decimeters  thick,  in  others  is  scarcely  thicker 
than  a  sheet  of  writing-paper. 

The  hypoderm,  consisting  of  one  or  more  layers  adjoining  the  epicarp, 
is  often  different  in  structure  from  the  layers  further  inward. 

The  remainder  of  the  mesocarp  may  be  homogeneous  throughout 
except  for  fibre-vascular  bundles,  or  may  consist  of  several  forms  of  cells 
(stone  cells,  oil  cells,  etc.)  irregularly  distributed  in  a  homogeneous 
ground  tissue,  or  arranged  in  distinct  layers.  The  visible  cell-contents 
include  starch,  sugar,  oil,  tannin,  chlorophyl,  calcium  oxalate,  and  other 
substances. 

The  Endocarp  (Figs.  17  and  18,  End),  strictly  speaking,  consists  of  the 
innermost  cell-layer,  but  in  the  case  of  nuts,  dupes,  and  other  fruits  the 
hard  shell  made  up  of  numerous  layers  of  stone  cells  is  commonly  desig- 
nated by  this  term. 

,  SEED. 

In  order  to  understand  the  structure  of  the  seed  it  is  essential  to  con- 
sider the  structure  of  the  ovule  from  which  it  was  developed,  and  the 
changes  this  undergoes  after  fertilization. 

An  ovule  (Fig.  19)  consists  of  the  body  or  Nucellus  (s)  in  which  is 
embedded  the  Embryo  sac  (/),  the  whole  being  enclosed  by  one,  or  more 
often  two,  coats  or  Integuments  (p,  q)  with  an  opening  at  one  end  known 
as  the  Foramen  (m).  The  Chalaza  (o)  is  the  base  of  the  ovule  where  the 
integuments  unite  with  the  nucellus :  the  Hilum  is  the  place  of  attach- 
ment with  the  support  or  Funiculus.  In  orthotropous  and  campylotro- 
pous  ovules  the  chalaza  is  also  the  hilum,  in  anatropous  and  amphitro- 
pous  ovules  they  are  more  or  less  separated,  and  are  joined  by  a  ridge 
known  as  the  Raphe  (n). 

The  pollen  grains  soon  after  they  are  deposited  on  the  stigma  of  the 
flower  send  off  tubes  (klm)  which  penetrate  through  the  style  into  the 
cavity  of  the  ovary,  and  through  the  foramen  into  the  nucellus,  finally 
entering  the  embryo  sac  and  effecting  fertilization.  As  a  result  of  this 
fertilization  the  Embryo  and  the  Endosperm  are  formed  in  the  embryo 
sac,  and  these  together  with  the  Perisperm,  consisting  of  the  developed, 
or  more  commonly,  degenerated  nucellus,  the  Spermoderm,  consisting  of 


36  PRELIMINARY. 

the  matured  integuments,  and  occasionally  certain  appendages,  make  up 
the  seed. 

Either  the  embryo,  the  endosperm  or  the  perisperm  of  the  mature 


FIG-.  19.     Flower  of  Simple  Type  in  Longitudinal  Section. 

Stamens  consist  of  c  filaments  and  a,  b  anthers  (a  cross  section,  b  after  dehiscence  show- 
ing pollen  grains). 

Pistil  consists  of  h  stigma  with  i  pollen  grains  sending  off  tubes,  one  of  which  (klm)  has 
reached  and  penetrated  the  ovule,  g  style,  and  /  ovary,  the  walls  of  which  later  develop  into 
the  pericarp. 

Ovule  consists  of  n  funiculus  (below)  and  raphe  (above),  o  chalaza,  p  outer  integument, 
q  inner  integument,  m  micropyle,  5  nucellus  or  body  of  the  ovule,  and  t  embryo  sac  in  which, 
through  the  agency  of  u  antipodal  cells,  v  synergidoe,  and  z  oosphere,-  are  developed  the 
endosperm  and  the  embryo. 

d  bases  of  sepals;  e  nectaries.     (SACHS.) 

seed  may  form  the   chief  reservoir  of  reserve  material,  or,  on  the  other 
hand  may  be  reduced  to  a  rudiment. 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  ORGANS. 


37 


This  reserve  material  may  consist  chiefly  of  starch  (e.g.  cereals),  of  oil 
(e.g.  cottonseed,  linseed),  or  of  cellulose  (e.g.  coffee,  ivory  nut). 


A  B 

FIG.  20.  Cardamom  Seeds.  A  longitudinal  section,  X  3.  B  transverse  section,  X  5.  p 
perisperm;  e  endosperm;  em  embryo.  The  reserve  material  in  the  perisperm  is  largely 
starch;  in  the  endosperm  and  embryo  it  is  oil  and  proteids.  (LUERSSEN.) 

The  Spermoderm,  Testa,  or  Seed  Coat,  includes  all  the  layers  developed 
from  the  integuments  of  the  ovule.1  It  may  be  simple  or  complex,  thin  or 
thick,  soft  or  hard.  In  some  seeds  it  con- 
sists of  but  one  or  two  thin  layers  (e.g. 
cereals),  in  others  of  five  or  six  distinct 
layers,  some  of  the  layers  being  several 
cells  thick  (e.g.  cucurbits).  Among  the 
common  elements  are  thick-  and  thin- 
walled  palisade  cells,  stone  cells,  crystal 
cells,  spongy  parenchyma,  and  ordinary 
parenchyma.  The  "Nutritive  Layer" 
found  in  some  seeds  is  a  parenchymatous 
tissue  containing  in  the  early  stages  of 
development  reserve  material,  but  later 
forming  an  ill-defined  tksue  of  empty 
compressed  cells. 

The  hilum,  chalaza,  and  raphe  of  the 
ovule  preserve  their  characters  in  the  seed, 
while  the  foramen  becomes  more  or  less 
indistinct,  forming  the  Micro pyle. 

The  raphe  (present  in  anatropous  and 
amphitropous  seeds)  is  a  bundle  of  vascu- 
lar elements  with  more  or  less  distinct 
branches. 


21.  Linseed  in  cross  section. 
5  spermoderm  or  seed  coat;  £  endo- 
sperm ;  C  cotyledons.  The  reserve 
material,  consisting  of  oil  and  pro- 
teids, is  partly  in  the  endosperm  and 
partly  in  the  embryo.  (MOELLER.) 


The  appendages  of  the  Spermoderm  include  the  Arillus  or  seed  mantle, 

1  Some  authors  apply  the  term  "testa"  only  to  that  portion  of  the  seed  coat  developed 
from  the  outer  integument  of  the  ovule,  the  portion  developed  from  the  inner  integument 
(if  present)  being  termed  "tegmen."  This  usage  leads  to  confusion  owing  to  the  difficulty 
of  tracing  the  origin  of  each  layer. 


PRELIMINARY. 


an  outgrowth  from  the  hilum,  the  Arillode,  an  outgrowth  from  the  micro- 
pyle,  and  the  Caruncle,  a  wart-like  body  formed  on  the  micropyle,  also 

bristles,  wings,  and  other  appendages  which 
aid  in  disseminating  the  seeds. 

The  Perisperin  or  Nucellar  Tissue  is 
usually  a  thin  layer,  often  without  cell  struc- 
ture, but  in  black  pepper  and  cardamom 
(Fig.  20,  p}  it  forms  the  larger  part  of  the 
seed  and  contains  the  store  of  reserve  starch. 
The  Endosperm  constitutes  the  bulk  of 
many  seeds  (e.g.  cereals),  but  is  almost 

entirely  absent  in  others  (e.g.  bean,  crucifers). 
FIG.    22.      Endosperm    of     Date  .  .. 

Stone  with  reserve  material  in    In  the  cereals  the  outer  layer  or  layers  ot 


the  endosPerm  consist  of  aleurone  cells,  the 
remainder,   of    starch  cells;    in  linseed   the 

endosperm  (Fig.  21,  £),  which  constitutes  about  half  of  the  seed,  con- 

tains aleurone  grains  and  oil,  but  no 

starch;  in   coffee   and    the   date  stone 

(Fig.  22)  the  bulky  endosperm  contains 

reserve  material  in  the  form  of  thick- 

ened cell-  walls. 

The  Embryo  is  a  young  plant  with 

Cotyledons  or  seed   leaves,   Radicle   or 

young  root,  and  Plumule  or  bud.     It 

may   be   embedded    in    the   center    or 

one  side  of  the  endosperm  (e.g.  cereals, 

coffee),  or  it  may  constitute  the  bulk 

of    the    seed    (e.g.    legumes,    crucifers, 

cottonseed).     In    the    latter    case    the     FlG>  23>    Mustard  Seed  in  cross  sec- 

reserve  material,  which  may  be  largely 

starch    or    oil,    is    located    chiefly    in 

the   thickened   cotyledons   and    radicle 

(Fig.  23).  -    . 


tion.  Embryo  consists  of  c  folded 
cotyledons  and  r  radicle.  Reserve 
material,  consisting  of  oil  and  pro- 
teids,  is  entirely  in  the  embryo. 

(TSCHIRCH.) 


THE  STEM  (BARK  AND  WOOD). 

The  stem  is  the  axis  connecting  the  leaf  and  root  systems.  It  may 
be  aerial  or  subterranean,  simple  or  branched,  herbaceous  or  woody.  In 
some  herbaceous  plants  it  is  exceedingly  short,  the  leaves  appearing  to 
spring  directly  from  the  root,  while  in  many  herbaceous  and  all  woody 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  ORGANS.  39 

plants  it  consists  of  an  elongated  trunk  with  or  without  a  system  of 
branches. 

Not  only  does  the  stem  serve  to  mechanically  support  the  leaves,  but 
also,  by  means  of  the  bundles,  to  distribute  over  the  plant  solutions  of  salts 
absorbed  by  the  roots,  of  carbohydrates  assimilated  by  the  leaf,  and  of 
other  organic  substances  formed  in  various  parts  of  the  plant.  During 
the  resting  season  large  amounts  of  reserve  material  are  stored  in  stems. 

AERIAL  STEMS. 

The  fibro-vascular  bundles  of  phenogamous  stems  are  collateral,  that 
is,  the  phloem  and  xylem  of  each  are  in  the  same  radial  plane.  Usually 
the  phloem  is  entirely  on  the  outer  side  of  the  xylem,  but  in  some  stems  it 
is  partly  on  the  inner  side  (bicollateral). 

In  the  stems  of  exogenous  plants  (dicotyledons  and  gymnosperms) 
the  bundles  with  the  parenchyma  separating  them  are  arranged  in  a  zone 
between  the  pith  and  the  cortex.  The  outer  ring  of  the  bundle  zone  con- 
tains the  bast  fiber  groups,  the  middle  ring,  the  phloem  groups,  the  inner 
ring,  the  xylem  groups.  If  the  plant  is  perennial  a  ring  of  active  cells  or 
cambium  soon  forms  between  the  phloem  and  xylem  rings,  adding  each 
year  new  tissues  to  the  inner  side  of  the  former  and  the  outer  side  of  the 
latter.  The  layers  outside  of  the  cambium  constitute  the  bark,  those 
between  the  cambium  and  pith  constitute  the  wood. 

The  bundles  of  endogenous  plants  (monocotyledons)  are  irregularly 
distributed  through  a  parenchymatous  ground  tissue.  There  is  no  cam- 
bium and  no  differentiation  into  bark  and  wood. 

The  following  descriptions  of  annual  and  perennial  stems  apply  only 

to  exogenous  plants: 

» 

ANNUAL  STEMS. 

The  stems  of  herbaceous  plants  and  the  young  stems  of  woody  plants 
consist  of  at  least  four  distinct  zones  : 

1.  Epidermis.     This  resembles  the  epidermis  of  the  leaf.     Stomata 
and  hairs  are  often  present. 

2.  Cortex.    The  tissue  is  largely  parenchyma,  often  with  outer  layers 
of  collenchyma  and  inner  layers  containing  either  bast  fibers  or  stone  cells, 
or  both. 

3.  Endodermis.     This  consists  of  a  single  layer  of  cells  with  thin  but 
suberized  walls.     Starch  grains  are  usually  found  in  the  cells. 


40  PRELIMINARY. 

All  the  tissues  inside  of  the  endodermis  form  the  central  cylinder  or 
Stele. 

4.  Bundle  Zone.     The  Phloem  strand  of  each  bundle  consists  of  sieve 
tubes,  cambiform  cells,  and  parenchyma;    the  Xylem  strand,  of  vessels 
(tracheae),  tracheids  (distinguished  from  vessels  by  the  cross  partitions), 
and  parenchyma.     The  bundles  are  separated  from  each  other  by  paren- 
chyma, developing  in  perennial  stems  into  the  medullary  rays.     Groups 
of  bast  fibers  are  commonly  present  in  the  outer  parenchyma,  or  Pericycle. 

5.  Pith.     This  consists  entirely  of  typical  parenchyma. 

PERENNIAL  (WOODY)  STEMS. 

The  structure  of  perennial  stems  (Figs.  24  and  25)  is  much  more  com- 
plicated than  that  of  annual  stems,  owing  to  the  formation  of  secondary 
bark  and  wood  by  the  cambium,  also  of  cork  and  secondary  cortex  by  the 
phellogen. 

The  Bark  includes  all  the  outer  part  of  the  stem  up  to  the  wood.  It  is 
readily  stripped  off  from  the  latter,  especially  during  the  spring,  the  separa- 
tion being  through  the  delicate  cells  of  the  cambium.  Although  many 
barks  are  used  in  medicine  (e.g.  cinchona,  slippery  elm,  cascarilla),  and 
in  the  arts  (e.g.  oak,  hemlock),  only  cinnamon  and  its  substitutes  are  of 
importance  as  foods. 

1.  Cork.    With  the  increase  in  diameter  of  the  stem  the  epidermis  is 
ruptured  and  finally  disappears  entirely.     In  its  place  cork  is  formed  by 
an  active  (meristematic)  layer  known  as  the  Phellogen.    As  the  cells  of 
the  phellogen  divide  by  tangential  partitions,  the  rectangular  cork  cells, 
as  seen  in  cross  sections,  are  in  radial  rows.     They  usually  have  suberized 
walls,  and  often  contain  dark  contents  with  the  reactions  of  tannin. 

As  the  stems  continue  to  grow  the  primary  cork  often  suffers  the  same 
fate  as  the  epidermis,  and  is  replaced  by  a  secondary  layer  formed  in  the 
cortex  by  a  new  phellogen.  This  secondary  cork  may  later  be  replaced 
by  a  tertiary,  and  so  on. 

2.  Secondary  Cortex,  a  thin-walled  tissue  hardly  distinguishable  from 
the  primary  cortex,  is  formed  from  the  phellogen  on  the  inner  side. 

3.  Primary  Cortex.     The  parenchymatous  ground  tissue  often  contains 
starch  and  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate.     Stone  cells  and  "bast  fibers  may 
also  be  present.     The  endodermis  of  old  stems  is  not  usually  distinguishable 
from  the  other  layers. 

4.  Pericyle.     This  may  consist  of  parenchymatous  ground  tissue  with 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  ORGANS.  41 

isolated  groups  of  bast  fibers,  or  of  a  "mixed  ring"  composed  chiefly  of 
stone  cells  and  bast  fibers. 

5.  Bast.  Like  the  phellogen,  the  cambium  forms  one  kind  of  tissue 
on  the  outside,  another  kind  on  the  inside.  These  are  respectively  the 
phloem  and  the  xylem,  a  layer  of  each  being  produced  each  year.  The 
phloem  layers  of  different  years'  growth,  together  with  the  separating 


FIG.  24.     Branch  of  the  Linden,  in  cross  section,  showing  the  bark  and  three  annual  layers 

of  wood.     (KNY.) 

partitions  or  medullary  rays,  form  the  bast  ring.  In  addition  to  sieve 
tubes,  cambiform  cells,  and  parenchyma,  the  bast  may  contain  oil  cells, 
mucilage  cells,  latex  tubes,  and  other  elements.  Starch  is  often  present. 

Microscopic  Elements  of  Barks.  The  elements  of  chief  importance  in 
diagnosis  are  bast  fibers,  stone  cells,  starch  grains,  and  cork.  The  other 
elements  have  less  striking  characters. 

Wood.  The  wood  elements,  like  the  phloem  elements,  are  in  radial 
rows,  separated  by  medullary  rays,  and  also  in  annual  layers.  The  ele- 
ments include  vessels  and  tracheids  of  numerous  types,  wood  fibers, 
parenchyma,  and  medullary  parenchyma.  The  parenchyma  cells  often 


PRELIMINARY. 


contain  starch  and  calcium  oxalate,  and  all  the  tissues  may  contain  or  be 
impregnated  with  resins,  essential  oils,  etc. 

Woods  are  not  used  as  foods,  but  sawdust  and  red  sandalwood  powder 
are  common  adulterants. 


a     b         c  d  e     f  g  h     i     k      I         m      n      o 

FIG.  25.  Elements  of  a  Dicotyledonous  Fibro-vascular  Bundle  in  longitudinal  section,  a 
parenchyma  of  pith;  b  annular  vessel  passing  into  spiral  vessel;  c  spiral  vessel ;  d  reticu- 
lated vessel;  e  wood  parenchyma;  /  wood  fiber;  g  pitted  vessel;  h  wood  parenchyma; 
i  cambium  layer;  k  cambiform  cells;  /sieve  tubes;  tn  sieve  parenchyma;  n  bast  fibers; 
o  parenchyma.  (KNY.) 

The  Microscopic  Characters  of  woods  of  angiosperms  and  gymnosperms 
as  given  by  Moeller  are  as  follows : 

The  Wood  of  Angiosperms  is  characterized  by  the  vessels  with  numerous 
small  pits  (Fig.  26,  g).  More  abundant  than  these  are  the  wood  fibers 
(/)  occurring  mostly  in  bundles,  accompanied  often  by  wood  parenchyma 
(_/>),  and  crossed  by  medullary  parenchyma  (m).  Simple  crystals  of  calcium 
oxalate  in  crystal  fibers  occur  in  many  tropical  woods  (Fig.  28,  k). 

Determination  of  the  species  or  even  the  genus  by  the  characters  of 
the  powder  is  very  difficult.  Chief  dependence  must  be  placed  on  the 
structure  of  the  vessels. 

The  Wood  of  Gymnosperms  consists  in  large  part  of  tracheids  with 
single  rows  of  bordered  pits  (Fig.  27,  /),  which,  except  in  the  spring  wood, 
where  they  occur  sparingly,  are  on  the  sides  adjoining  the  medullary  rays. 
These  are  most  striking  in  radial  sections.  Well-formed  oxalate  crystals 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  ORGANS. 


43 


are  absent.     The  wood  of  certain  European  species  may  be  distinguished 
by  the  characters  of  the  medullary  rays. 


I 


FIG.  26.  Sawdust  of  an  Angiospermous  Wood,  p  wood  parenchyma;  /  wood  fibers; 
g  vessels  with  numerous  pits;  m  medullary  rays  in  radial  and  tangential  view;  K  crystal 
cells.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 

SUBTERRANEAN  STEMS. 

To  this  class  belong  Rhizomes  or  root-stalks  (e.g.  ginger),  Tubers  (e.g. 
potato),  and  Corms  (e.g.  cyclamen).      Rhizomes   in  common   parlance 

-       ^        ^J.    HijR-f 
*_JJ\   »  1F1JI  ifH  \ 


FIG.  27.     Sawdust  of  a  Coniferous  Wood.      t  tracheids  with  single  rows  of  pits;  m  medul- 
lary rays;   p  parenchyma.     X 160.     (MOELLER.) 

are  classed  with   roots.       Bulbs   (e.g.   onion)    are   subterranean    stems 
covered  with  leaf  scales. 


44 


PRELIMINARY. 


Many  subterranean  stems  are  reservoirs  of  starch,  sugar,  inulin,  and 
other  reserve  materials,  and  are  important  foods.     Their  tissues  are  much 

A  B 


Til 


FIG.  28.  Red  Sandalwood  (Pterocarpus  santalinus) .  A  radial  section;  B  tangential  sec- 
tion, k  crystal  fibers;  /  wood  fibers;  p  wood  parenchyma;  g  bundle;  m  medullary 
rays.  X 160.  (MOELLER.) 

simpler  than  those  of  aerial  stems,  consisting  chiefly  of  parenchyma  with 
a  thin  covering  of  cork  and  relatively  few  bundles.  In  the  rhizomes  of 
dicotyledons  the  bundles,  like  those  of  aerial  stems,  are  collateral ;  in  those 
of  monocotyledons  they  start  as  collateral,  but  later  often  become  con- 
centric, with  the  xylem  encircling  the  phloem.  Mechanical  elements, 
being  unnecessary,  are  usually  few  or  entirely  lacking. 

THE  ROOT. 

The  root  fixes  the  plant  in  the  soil  and  absorbs  the  water  and  mineral 
matters  essential  for  life  and  growth.  In  certain  plants  the  root  is  fleshy, 
serving  as  a  storehouse  for  reserve  material.  The  roots  used  as  foods 
include  the  turnip,  beet,  carrot,  parsnip,  chicory,  and  others. 

'  ANNUAL  ROOT. 

The  general  structure  resembles  that  of  dicotyledonous  stems;  but  the 
elements  of  the  epidermis  and  the  arrangement  of  the  bundles  are  quite 
different. 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  ORGANS.  45 

1.  Epidermis.     Root  hairs,  consisting  of  blunt,  thin- walled  outgrowths 
from  the  center  of  epidermal  cells,  are  found   on  young    roots.     Hairs 
such  as  occur  on  aerial  parts,  as  well  as  stomata,  are  never  present. 

2.  Cortex.     This  is  a  parenchyma  tissue  similar  to  that  of  stems. 
Chlorophyl  is  absent. 

3.  The  Endodermis   is    characterized    by    the    suberized    and    often 
thickened  walls. 

4.  Bundle  Zone.      The  outer  layer  (pericycle  or  pericambium)  is  of 
parenchyma.     The  bundles  proper  are  of  the  radial  type  the  phloem  and 
xylem  being  side  by  side,  not  one  in  front  of  the  other,  as  in  the  collateral 
bundles.     The  groups  of  xylem  and  phloem  elements  alternating  with  one 
another  form  a  chain  about  the  center  of  the  root. 

5.  Pith.     This  may  or  may  not  be  evident. 

Certain  fleshy  annual  roots,  such  as  the  beet,  show  concentric  rings 
similar  to  those  of  wood.  These  are  formed  by  a  series  of  new  cambium 
layers  which  appear  one  after  another  in  the  parenchyma,  each  producing 
a  ring  of  phloem  and  xylem. 

PERENNIAL  (WOODY)  ROOTS. 

The  secondary  changes  in  the  roots  of  monocotyledons  are  not  impor- 
tant, but  in  dicotyledons  the  structure  finally  becomes  much  the  same  as 
that  of  the  stem.  The  epidermis  with  root  hairs  is  replaced  by  cork,  and 
the  bundles  change  from  radial  to  collateral.  The  cambium  forms  out- 
side of  the  xylem  and  inside  of  the  phloem  of  each  bundle,  and  conse- 
quently is  at  first  sinuous  in  cross  section.  As  the  thickening  proceeds  the 
radial  arrangement  disappears,  and  the  cambium  finally  forms  a  ring  like 
that  of  stems. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  p.  27. 


PART  II. 

GRAIN:     ITS    PRODUCTS    AND    IMPURITIES. 


GRAIN. 

Grain,  in  the  ordinary  acceptance  of  the  term,  includes  such  fruits  of 
the  cereals  (Graminea)  and  buckwheats  (Polygonacece)  as  are  valuable  as 
food  for  man  and  cattle. 

The  impurities  of  grain  include  weed  seeds,  ergot,  spores  of  smuts, 
straw,  dirt,  and  other  matters  (p.  145  et  seq.).  Weed  seeds  belonging  to 
the  Graminea  and  Polygonacetz  are  described  with  the  economic  species 
of  these  families. 

The  nature  and  purity  of  grain  is  readily  determined  by  macroscopic 
examination,  although  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  microscopic 
structure  of  the  whole  grain  is  essential  for  the  diagnosis  of  products. 

Flour  and  Meal. 

In  the  examination  of  mill  products  with  respect  to  their  purity  and 
wholesomeness,  the  following  points  call  for  consideration:  (i)  Is  added 
mineral  matter  present?  (2)  Is  it  or  has  it  been  infested  by  insects  or 
other  forms  of  animal  life?  (3)  Has  the  product  or  the  grain  from  which 
it  was  made  been  damaged  by  rusts,  moulds,  or  bacteria?  (4)  Was  it 
made  from  sprouted  grain  ?  (5)  Are  starch  or  tissues  of  weed  seed  present 
in  appreciable  amount  ?  (6)  Are  foreign  flours  or  other  vegetable  adulter- 
ants present? 

Mineral  Adulterants.  Calcium  sulphate  (gypsum),  calcium  carbonate 
(chalk),  clay,  and  even  sand  were  formerly  added  to  flour  and  meal,  but 
at  the  present  time  are  seldom  if  ever  used  in  any  cereal  product,  although 
calcium  sulphate  in  considerable  amount  has  been  frequently  detected  in 
cream  of  tartar  and  baking-powder,  and  powdered  rock  (talc  and  tremo- 
lite)  to  the  extent  of  25  per  cent  has  been  found  in  one  brand  of  baking- 
powder  examined  at  the  Connecticut  Experiment  Station. 

Foreign  mineral  matter  is  best  detected  by  determinations  of  ash, 
supplemented  by  an  ash  analysis,  although  the  chloroform  test  (p.  53) 
furnishes  valuable  indications. 

49 


50  GRAIN. 

Insect  and  other  Animal  Contamination.  According  to  Chittenden  J 
the  insects  which  most  commonly  infest  grain  and  flour  are  cosmopolitan, 
having  been  distributed  by  commerce  to  all  quarters  of  the  earth.  The 
following  common  species  are  described: 

The  granary- weevil  (Calandra  granaria  L.),  the  rice- weevil  (Calandra 
oryza  L.),  the  Angoumois  grain-moth  (Sitotroga  cerealella  OL),  the  wolf- 
moth  (Tinea  granella  L.),  the  Mediterranean  flour-moth  (Ephestia  Kueh- 
niella  ZelL),  the  Indian  (maize)  meal  moth  (Plodia  inter punctella  Hbn.), 
the  meal  snout-moth  (Pyralis  jarinalis  L.),  the  confused  flour-beetle 
(Tribolium  conjusum  Duv.),  the  rust-red  flour-beetle  (Tribolium  jerrugi- 
neum  Fab.),  the  slender-horned  flour-beetle  (Echocerus  maxillosus  Fab.), 
the  broad -horned  flour-beetle  (Echocerus  cornutus  Fab.),  the  small-eyed 
flour-beetle  (P atoms  ratzeburgi  Wissm.),  the  yellow  meal-worm  (Tenebrio 
molitor  L.),  the  dark  meal-worm  (Tenebrio  obscurus  L.),  the  saw-toothed 
grain-beetle  (Silvanus  surinamensis  L.),  the  red  or  square-necked  grain- 
beetle  (Cathartus  gemallatus  Duv.),  the  European  grain-beetle  (Cathartus 
advena  Waltl.),  and  the  cadelle  (Tenebroides  mauritanicus  L.) 

Among  the  creatures  found  only  in  the  ground  products  are  the  sugar- 
mite  (Lapisma  saccharina),  the  common  flour-mite  (Acarus  farina),  and 
the  feathered  mite  (Acayus  plumiger). 

The  figures  and  descriptions  given  by  Chittenden,  Bohmer,2  and  other 
authors  aid  in  the  identification  of  the  foregoing  species. 

In  cases  where  the  live  insects  are  no  longer  present  evidences  of 
previous  infection  are  often  furnished  by  the  wings  or  other  parts  of  dead 
insects,  also  by  the  excrement,  webs  and  other  remains,  seen  either  with 
the  naked  eye  or  under  the  microscope. 

Wheat  is  often  infested  by  the  wheat- worm  (Tylenchus  scandens  Schu., 
Anguillula  tritici  Need.)  a  nematode  related  to  Trichina.  So-called 
"cockle-wheat"  (Fig.  29)  consists  of  wheat  kernels  entirely  transformed 
by  the  ravages  of  this  disgusting,  but  probably  harmless,  creature.  The 
more  or  less  distorted  kernels  are  from  3-7  mm.  long,  and  often  forked  at 
the  apex.  The  tough  shell,  consisting  of  rather  thick- walled  porous 
sclerenchyma  elements  with  intercellular  spaces,  inclose  a  tangled  mass  of 
worms,  which,  as  may  be  seen  with  a  low  power,  become  active  when 
thrown  into  water.  The  worms  are  upward  of  i  mm.  long,  pointed  at 


1  Some  insects  injurious  to  stored  grain.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  45, 
Washington,  1896 

2  Kraftfuttermittel,  pp.  65-68. 


FLOUR  AND  MEAL.  51 

both  ends,  and  appear  to  be  filled  with  a  granular  substance.  They  are 
easily  recognized  in  water  mounts. 

The  Cryptogamic  Plants  which  attack  the  inflorescence  of  cereals 
often  render  the  grain  unfit  for  flour-making.  To  this  class  belong  the 
smuts  (p.  165)  and  ergot  (p.  164). 

Molds,  yeast  plants,  algae  and  bacteria  are  also  developed  in  the  flour 
itself,  especially  after  exposure  to  dampness,  and  as  a  consequence  the 

TI 


— P 


FIG.  29.     Cockle  Wheat .     /  whole  grains  somewhat  enlarged.     //  cross  section: 
ep  epidermis;   p  thick-walled  parenchyma.     (VOGL.) 

flour  becomes  "off  color,"  lumpy,  and  offensive  both  in  odor  and  taste. 
Fungus  hyphae,  spores  and  other  cryptogamic  elements  furnish  microscopic 
evidence  of  such  contamination. 

Bohmer 1  gives  analytical  keys  and  systematic  descriptions  for  the 
identification  of  these  and  other  microorganisms. 

Sprouted  Grain.  As  a  consequence  of  improper  storage,  grain  some- 
times begins  to  sprout,  and  thus  loses  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  its  value 
for  flour-making.  Under  the  microscope  the  starch  grains  have  a  char- 
acteristic appearance  due  to  their  partial  solution  by  the  diastatic  ferments 
developed  during  germination.  The  concentric  rings  are  unusually  dis- 

1  Loc.  cit. 


52 


GRAIN. 


tinct,  and  branching  channels  resembling  burrows  of  worms  occur  in  many 
of  the  grains  (Fig.  30). 

Weed  Seeds.     See  pp.  145-163. 

Foreign  Flour.  In  Europe,  wheat  flour  is  sometimes  adulterated 
with  rye,  barley,  buckwheat,  rice,  bean,  potato,  or  acorn  flour,  while  in 
America  it  is  frequently  mixed  with  maize  flour. 

Rye  flour,  according  to  the  German  authorities,  is  much  oftener  adul- 
terated by  inferior  wheat  flour  than  wrheat  flour  by  rye  flour. 

Buckwheat  flour  is  often  mixed  with  wheat,  maize,  barley,  or  rice 


FIG.  30.     Starch  Grains  from  Sprouted  Cereals.     Left,  large  grains  from  wheat;    right, 

from  rye.     (VOGL.) 

flour,  sometimes  with  the  intent  of  cheapening  the  product;  less  often  to 
meet  the  demands  of  consumers. 

Rice  flour  is  liable  to  the  same  forms  of  adulteration  as  buckwheat 
flour,  while  maize  flour,  because  of  its  cheapness,  is  seldom  adulterated. 

Sawdust,  Maize  Cob,  and  other  similar  wraste  products  cannot  be 
reduced  to  a  sufficiently  fine  powder  to  be  used  in  fine  flour,  but  are  some- 
times mixed  with  coarse  meal,  and  cattle  foods.  They  are  detected  by 
their  high  percentage  of  crude  fiber  and  low  percentage  of  starch  and 
protein,  as  well  as  by  their  characteristic  tissues. 

METHODS  OF  EXAMINATION. 

Preliminary  Examination.  The  color,  odor,  taste,  and  other  physical 
characters  should  first  be  noted  and  compared  with  samples  of  known 
purity.  Flour  or  meal  that  is  damp,  mouldy,  foul-smelling,  or  infested 
by  insects,  is  obviously  unfit  for  food  whatever  may  be  the  results  of 
chemical  or  microscopic  examination. 

Color  Test.  In  German*  mills  and  custom-houses  since  1894,  the  color 
of  flour  has  been  determined  by  "pekarizing"  (pekarisiren)  as  follows:1 

1  Vereinbarungen  zur  einheitlichen  Untersuchung  u.  Beurtheilung  von  Nahrungs-  u. 
Genussmittel.  Berlin  II,  1899,  18. 


FLOUR  AND  MEAL  53 

Spread  two  teaspoonfuls  (15-20  grams)  of  the  flour  on  a  glass  plate  or 
thin  board,  so  as  to  form  a  parallelepiped  5  cm.  long,  3  cm.  broad  and 
2  mm.  high.  Cover  with  a  glass  plate  and  press  until  the  surface  is 
smooth. 

In  this  way  the  color  of  different  samples  may  be  much  more  accurately 
compared  than  when  loose. 

The  differences  in  color  are  brought  out  still  more  strikingly  by  care- 
fully placing  the  plate  in  a  slightly  inclined  position  under  water  and  keep- 
ing in  that  position  for  about  one  minute. 

Caillettefs  Chloroform  Test,  designed  chiefly  to  furnish  indications  of 
mineral  adulteration,  consists  in  shaking  in  a  test-tube  about  2  grams  of 
the  flour  with  25  cc.  of  chloroform.  If  on  standing,  any  considerable 
amount  of  deposit  collects  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube,  the  presence  of 
mineral  matter  is  indicated,  as  the  flour  particles,  being  for  the  most  part 
lighter  than  chloroform,  rise  to  the  surface. 

This  residue  may  be  examined  chemically,  but  the  test  should  always 
be  corroborated  by  an  accurate  determination  of  ash  in  the  original  material 
and  an  analysis  of  the  ash. 

Beneke's  Chloroform  Test.1  This  test  serves  not  only  to  detect  mineral 
powders  but  also  to  distinguish  rye  flour  from  wheat  flour,  or  to  detect 
the  presence  of  one  in  the  other.  It  is  as  follows :  Place  100  grams  of 
the  flour  in  a  500-600  cc.  flask  and  add  enough  chloroform  to  fill  the  flask 
two  thirds  full;  cork  and  shake  carefully  until  no  lumps  remain;  then  fill 
nearly  full,  shake  vigorously,  and  allow  to  stand.  A  brown  deposit  of 
dirt  soon  settles,  and  gradually  a  further  deposit,  consisting  largely  of  aleu- 
rone  cells  forms  a  layer  over  the  last.  After  about  24  hours,  this  latter 
deposit  should  be  examined  with  the  naked  eye  and  under  the  microscope, 
noting  especially  the  color.  The  aleurone  cells  of  rye  are  blue  or  olive- 
green,  those  of  wheat  yellow-brown. 

VogVs  Alcohol- Hydrochloric  Acid  Test2  furnishes  indications  of  the 
presence  of  foreign  flour  or  ground  weed  seed. 

Shake  violently  2  grams  of  the  flour  in  a  test-tube  with  10  cc.  of  a  solu- 
tion containing  5  per  cent  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  70  per  cent  of  alcohol ; 
warm  finally  at  a  gentle  heat  and  allow  to  settle.  Note  the  color  in  reflected 
light  of  the  column  of  solution,  the  meniscus,  and  the  deposit. 

Wheat  flour  entirely  free  from  impurities  yields  both  a  colorless  solu- 
tion and  a  colorless  deposit,  and  wheat  flour  with  a  small  amount  of  im- 

'Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1889,  36,  337. 

2  Die  wichtigsten  vegetabilischen  Nahrungs-  u.  Genussmittel,  p.  24. 


54  GRAIN. 

purity,  also  common  rye,  oat,  and  barley  flour,  yield  a  pale  yellow  or  pale 
yellow-red  solution.  A  decided  coloration  of  the  solution,  particularly  at 
the  meniscus,  indicates  a  considerable  amount  of  weed  seed. 

Cockle  (Agrostemma)  and  darnel  (Lolium)  color  the  solution  orange- 
yellow;  leguminous  seeds,  rose-red,  violet  or  purple;  cow  wheat  (Melam- 
pyrum),  blue-green  or  green;  ergot,  flesh-red  to  blood-red. 

Gluten  Test.  Make  a  handful  of  the  flour  into  a  dough  with  the 
smallest  possible  amount  of  water  and  wash  with  continual  kneading  under 
a  stream  of  water.  Wheat  flour  yields  by  this  treatment  an  elastic  mass 
of  gluten  while  the  flour  of  other  cereals  is  gradually  but  completely 
washed  away. 

Chemical  Examination.  Determination  of  the  usual  proximate  con- 
stituents in  the  flour  often  aids  in  the  diagnosis.  For  example,  wheat  flour 
is  moderately  rich  in  protein  but  poor  in  fat,  corn  flour  is  somewhat  poorer 
than  wheat  flour  in  protein  but  much  richer  in  fat,  while  buckwheat  and 
rice  flour  are  poor  in  both  of  these  constituents. 

Microscopical  Examination.  In  1882,  the  Association  of  German 
Millers  offered  a  prize  of  a  thousand  marks  for  an  essay  describing  a  simple 
process  for  detecting  admixtures  in  wheat  and  rye  flour.  Wittmack  won 
this  prize,  and  the  motto  of  his  essay  was :  "  Das  Mikroskop  ist  der  beste 
Leitstern." 

Not  only  is  it  true  that  the  microscope  is  the  most  valuable  means  for 
the  examination  of  flour,  but  in  many  cases  it  is  the  only  means. 

The  following  methods  of  preparing  the  material  for  examination  will 
be  found  useful: 

Direct  Examination.  The  points  of  special  importance  are  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  starch  grains,  the  presence  or  absence  of  aggregates,  the 
size  of  the  hilum,  and  the  distinctness  of  the  rings.  With  the  aid 
of  the  key  on  p.  64'  and  the  descriptions  under  each  cereal  identifica- 
tion of  the  group  and  often  of  the  particular  starch  is  readily  accom- 
plished. Among  the  more  difficult  problems  are  the  distinction  of  the 
grains  of  wheat,  rye,  and  barley;  of  rice,  oats,  and  darnel;  and  of  maize 
and  sorghum. 

Polarized  light  is  useful  in  determining  the  locations  and  form  of 
the  hilum  through  which  the  crossed  lines  seen  with  crossed  Nicols 
always  pass.  In  cereal  starches  the  hilum  is  central,  and  in  potato  and 
various  other  starches  eccentric.  The  hilum  of  leguminous  starches  is 
elongated  (see  Fig.  572). 

The  crossed  lines  differ  greatly  in  intensity,  being  scarcely  evident 


FLOUR  AND  MEAL.  55 

in  wheat,  rye,  and  barley,  but  distinct  in  maize,  sorghum,  rice  and  many 
other  kinds. 

The  brilliancy  of  the  starch  grains  and  their  crosses  when  viewed 
with  polarized  light  also  aids  in  detecting  them  in  the  presence  of  fat 
globules  and  aleurone  grains,  although  the  addition  of  iodine  solution 
accomplishes  the  same  end. 

Heating  the  water  mount  to  boiling  or  Addition  of  Alkali  (potassium 
or  sodium  hydrate)  dissolves  at  once  the  starch  and  proteid  matter 
and  thus  clears  the  tissues.  Usually,  however,  this  treatment,  which 
is  so  valuable  in  the  case  of  materials  with  considerable  bran  tissues, 
is  of  less  service  in  the  examination  of  flour  than  one  of  the  following 
methods  for  accumulating  the  bran  tissues  from  a  large  amount  of  the 
material. 

Schimper1  s  Scum  Method.1  Mix  thoroughly  3  grams  of  the  flour 
with  100  cc.  of  water  and  heat  without  further  stirring  until  the  boiling- 
point  is  reached.  The  scum  which  rises  to  the  surface  contains  the 
greater  part  of  the  hairs  and  other  bran  tissues,  and  may  be  transferred 
to  a  slide  and  examined  both  directly  and  after  treating  with  chloral 
or  alkali. 

Steinbusch's  Diastase  Method.2  Make  10  grams  of  the  flour  into 
a  paste  with  40  cc.  of  water  and  add  with  constant  stirring  150  cc.  of 
boiling  water.  Cool  to  55°-6o°  C.  and  add  30  cc.  of  malt  extract  (pre- 
pared by  digesting  at  room  temperature  for  3  hours  i  part  of  freshly 
ground  malt  and  10  parts  of  water  and  filtering)  and  keep  at  55°-6o° 
for  15-30  minutes.  Dilute,  allow  to  settle,  decant  off  the  liquid,  wash 
the  residue  once  or  twice  by  decantation,  and  finally  treat  with  i  per  cent 
sodium  hydrate. 

This  method  is  more  laborious  than  the  two  following  methods  and 
has  no  advantage  except  in  the  case  of  delicate  tissues.  If  quantitative 
determinations  of  starch  are  made,  the  residue  after  the  malt  digestion 
may  be  used  for  microscopic  examination. 

Hydrochloric-acid  Method?  Mix  5  grams  of  the  flour  in  a  casserole 
with  500  cc.  water,  heat  to  boiling,  add  5  cc.  concentrated  hydrochloric 
acid  and  boil  for  15  minutes.  After  allowing  to  settle,  decant  off  the  super- 

1  Schimper,   Anleitung   zur   mikroskopischen  Untersuchung   der  vegetabilischen  Nahr- 
ungs-  u.  Genussmittel.     Jena  1900,  17. 

2  Ber.  d.  deutsch.  Chem.  Ges.  14,  2449. 

3  Various  modifications  of  this  method  have  been  described  by  Moeller,  Schimper,  and 
other  authors. 


56  GRAltf. 

natant  liquid  and  mount  the  deposit  of  bran  elements  either  in  water, 
chloral  or  dilute  alkali. 

LaucWs  Method  l  is  the  same  as  the  crude-fiber  method  (p.  17) 
except  that  2.5  per  cent  sodium  hydrate  is  used  and  the  solution  is  boiled 
but  5  minutes. 

The  treatment  dissolves  completely  the  starch,  proteids  and  fat,  thus 
making  the  tissues  very  transparent,  but  it  also  distorts  the  hairs  by 
swelling  the  walls,  and  for  that  reason  is  not  suited  for  the  detection  of 
wheat  flour  in  rye  flour,  or  vice  versa. 

Of  the  processes  for  accumulating  and  clearing  the  tissues,  Schimper's 
scum  method  has  the  least  action  on  the  cell- walls,  Steinbusch's  diastase 
method  somewhat  more,  the  hydrochloric -acid  method  still  more,  while 
Lauck's  method  is  most  energetic  of  all.  The  methods  are  arranged 
according  to  the  intensity  of  their  action. 

VogVs  Naphthylene-blue  Method.2  Thoroughly  mix  2  grams  of  the 
flour  with  a  small  quantity  of  a  solution  of  o.i  gram  of  naphthylene  blue 
in  a  mixture  of  100  cc.  absolute  alcohol  and  400  cc.  water.  Transfer 
to  a  slide,  allow  to  dry  and  examine  in  sassafras  oil  or  some  other  essen- 
tial oil  or  else  in  creosote  or  guaiacol.  After  this  treatment  the  pericarp 
coats  and  contents  of  the  aleurone  cells  and  germ  tissues  appear  bright 
blue  or  violet-blue,  and  the  walls  of  the  aleurone  cells  light  blue,  while 
the  tissues  and  contents  of  the  starch  cells  remain  colorless  and  are  ren- 
dered transparent  by  the  mounting  medium. 

Bamihrs  Test  (p.  70). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  Bibliography  of  Wheat. 

Bread. 

Bread,  in  the  broad  sense  of  the  word,  including  biscuit,  cakes  and 
other  cereal  oven  products,  is  made  either  from  the  flour  of  one  cereal  or 
of  several  cereals.  It  is  raised  commonly  either  with  yeast,  baking-powder 
(or  an  equivalent),  of  eggs. 

The  examination  of  bread  is  much  more  difficult  than  that  of  flour, 
partly  because  other  vegetable  materials  are  present,  and  -partly  because 
the  starch  grains  of  the  flour  are  much  distorted  by  baking. 

1  Vereinbarungen  zur  einheitlichen  Untersuchung  u.   Beurtheilung  von  Nahrungs-  u. 
Genussmitteln.     Berlin,  Heft  II,  1899,  23. 

2  Die  wicht.  vegetab.  Nahr.-  u.  Genussm.     Berlin  and  Wien  1899,  17. 


BREAD.     CATTLE  FOODS. 


57 


The  histological  elements  include  the  distorted  starch  grains  (Fig.  31), 
more  or  less  bran  tissues,  and  if  yeast  was  used  as  the  leavening  agent, 
cells  of  the  yeast  plant. 

Of  the  methods  of  examination  described  under  flour,  the  diastase 
method,  the  hydrochloric-acid  method,  and  the  crude  fiber  process,  are 


FIG.  31.     Starch  Grains  from  Wheat  Bread,     a  typical  forms,  little  altered;   b  broken  and 

swollen  forms.     (MOELLER.) 

also  suited  for  the  examination  of   bread,  provided   the  material  is  first 
dried  and  ground  to  a  moderate  degree  of  fineness. 

Chemical  examination  includes  determinations  of  the  usual  proximate 
constituents,  tests  for  alum  and  other  baking  chemicals,  and,  in  the  case 
of  highly  colored  products,  tests  for  artificial  color. 

Cattle  Foods. 

Mill  Products.  The  mill  products  of  wheat,  rye,  barley,  rice  and 
buckwheat,  are  more  commonly  consumed  by  the  human  family,  only 
the  by-products  being  cheap  enough  for  cattle  foods.  Among  the  most 
important  mill  products  designed  especially  for  cattle,  are  maize  meal, 
ground  oats,  and  provender  (a  mixture  of  maize  meal  and  ground  oats). 
Of  lesser  importance  are  meals  made  from  the  chaffy  wheats,  sorghum, 
millet,  and  other  cereals.  These  products  are  much' coarser  than  flour 
designed  for  human  use,  and  are  invariably  prepared  from  the  whole 
kernel  without  separation  of  the  bran  or  adhering  chaff. 

Mill  By-products  include  the  offals  of  flour  mills,  breakfast-food 
factories  and  some  other  industries.  Among  the  most  important  materials 
are  screenings,  bran,  and  middlings,  from  wheat,  rye,  barley,  maize,  buck- 
wheat, and  rice,  also  more  or  less  analogous  materials  designated  by  special 


58  GRAIN. 

names,  such  as  hominy  feed,  oat  feed,  etc.  These  products,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  screenings,  which  is  treated  in  a  separate  chapter  (pp.  145,  163), 
are  described  under  the  different  cereals. 

All  of  these  materials  contain  starch  grains  in  their  original  form. 

By-products  from  the  Manufacture  of  Starch  and  Glucose.  In 
Europe  starch  and  glucose  are  made  chiefly  from  wheat  or  potatoes,  in 
the  United  States  almost  exclusively  from  maize. 

In  the  American  factories,  whether  starch  or  glucose  is  the  final  product, 
the  germ  is  first  separated  from  the  remainder  of  the  grain  and  subjected 
to  pressure  to  remove  the  oil.  The  oil-cake  is  similar  to  the  cake  of 
true  oil  seeds  in  that  it  contains  no  starch,  but  a  high  percentage  of  pro- 
teid  and  a  considerable  amount  of  residual  oil. 

Starch  is  separated  mechanically  from  the  remainder  of  the  grain  in 
a  wet  way  and  is  purified  for  cooking  and  laundry  purposes,  or  is  con- 
verted by  acid  into  glucose. 

The  dried  residues  from  the  processes  are  known  as  gluten  meal, 
gluten  feed,  starch  feed,  etc.  (p.  96).  As  they  are  dried  at  a  rather  high 
temperature  the  starch  grains  are  distorted  or  entirely  disorganized. 

Brewery  and  Distillery  By-products  include  malt  sprouts,  brewery 
grains  and  distillery  grains. 

Malt  sprouts  are  the  worm-like  radicles  removed  from  sprouted  barley. 
They  are  quite  simple  in  structure,  and  contain  no  starch  in  any  form  (p.  86). 

Malt  and  distilled  liquors  may  be  made  from  any  of  the  cereals.  In 
Europe  barley,  rye  and  wheat  are  chiefly  employed ;  in  the  United  States, 
barley,  rye  and  maize;  in  Japan,  China,  and  India,  rice  and  to  some 
extent  sorghum. 

As  the  starch  originally  present  in  the  grain  is  converted  successively 
into  sugar  and  alcohol,  the  residue  or  "grains"  contain  no  appreciable 
amount  of  starch.  Both  wet  and  dry  grains  are  used  for  feeding. 

Chaff  of  oats,  barley,  rice,  and  weed  seeds,  also  maize  cob  and  buck- 
wheat hulls,  although  of  little  value  except  for  packing  or  fuel,  are  used 
for  cattle  foods,  especially  when  mixed  with  more  valuable  material. 

Oat  and  barley  hulls  are  obtained  in  the  factories  where  oatmeal  and 
pearl  barley  are  made  and  are  ingredients  of  certain  proprietary  cattle 
foods  containing,  in  addition  to  cereal  constituents,  some  concentrated 
food,  such  as  cottonseed  meal  or  linseed  meal. 

Rice  hulls,  maize  cob,  peanut  shells,  and  coffee  hulls,  notwithstanding 
their  lack  of  valuable  nutrients  and  their  harsh  woody  structure,  are  not 
infrequently  met  with  in  cattle  foods,  especially  as  adulterants  of  bran. 


CATTLE  FOODS.  59 

METHODS  OF  EXAMINATION. 

Preliminary  Examination.  The  material  should  first  be  spread  out 
on  a  paper  and  fragments  of  a  suspicious  nature  picked  out  with  forceps. 
This  search  is  usually  facilitated  by  separating  the  material  by  means  of 
a  series  of  sieves  into  several  portions  of  different  degrees  of  fineness. 
Many  times  impurities,  such  as  chaff,  insect  remains,  mouse  excrement,  etc., 
may  be  identified  with  the  naked  eye  or  under  a  lens,  although  more  often 
positive  identification  is  not  possible  without  recourse  to  the  microscope. 

In  bran  the  black  hulls  of  cockle  or  of  black  bindweed  are  often  present, 
the  former  being  characterized  by  the  rough  outer  surface,  the  latter  by 
the  smooth  but  dull  surface  and  the  regular  shape  of  the  larger  fragments. 

Foxtail  (Setaria)  is  recognized  by  the  mottled  color  and  the  transverse 
wrinkles  on  the  flowrering  glumes  and  other  weed  seeds  by  the  characters 
learned  from  the  descriptions,  as  well  as  by  comparison  with  standard 
specimens. 

Rice  hulls  or  chaff,  even  in  quite  small  pieces,  are  recognized  under  a 
lens  by  their  rough  surface  and  straw -yellow  color ;  oat  hulls  by  the  smooth 
convex  surface;  barley  hulls  by  their  smooth  but  ribbed  surface;  corn- 
cob by  the  hard  fragments  of  the  woody  zone  and  the  hard  glumes,  also 
by  the  papery  thin  glumes,  often  of  a  red  color. 

The  bran  coats  of  wheat  and  rye  are  rather  soft,  of  a  reddish  or  buff 
color;  those  of  m^ize  tough  and  horny,  either  white,  yellow  or  red  (rarely 
blue) ;  those  of  oats  and  rice,  thin  and  delicate,  of  a  brownish-yellow  color. 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  macroscopic  characters  which  either  furnish 
positive  evidence,  or  serve  as  a  guide  for  microscopic  examinations.  The 
eye  of  the  microscopist  as  well  as  his  senses  of  taste,  smell,  and  touch  soon 
becomes  trained  to  note  very  slight  peculiarities,  which  often  leads  him 
to  form  an  opinion  before  he  has  looked  in  his  microscope. 

The  Chemical  Analysis  of  fodders  commonly  includes  the  determina- 
tion of  water,  ash,  protein  (Nx6J),  crude  fiber,  nitrogen-free  extract 
(by  difference)  and  fat.  Determinations  of  starch,  sugars,  pentosans  and 
albuminoid  nitrogen  are  rarely  desirable. 

Microscopic  Examination.  As  the  cereal  products  and  by-products 
used  for  cattle  food  are  for  the  most  part  coarsely  ground,  and  contain 
considerable  amounts  of  the  bran  coats  or  chaff,  their  identification  is 
usually  easier  than  that  of  flour  and  other  products  consisting  largely 
of  starchy  matter  in  the  form  of  a  fine  powder. 

Direct  Examination.     For  the  identification  of  starch  grains  an  ex- 


60  GRAIN. 

animation  is  made  in  water  either  of  the  fine  powder  separated  from 
the  coarse  by  sifting,  or  of  a  finely-ground  sample  of  the  whole  material. 
Coarse  fragments  of  a  starchy  nature  picked  out  with  the  forceps  are 
crushed,  scraped  or  sectioned  and  likewise  examined  in  water.  Exami- 
nation with  the  aid  of  polarizing  apparatus  is  often  useful. 

Treatment  with  Reagents.  Fragments  of  bran  or  chaff  may  also  be 
examined  directly  in  water,  but  much  better  results  are  secured  after 
first  dissolving  the  starch  and  other  interfering  substances,  either  by 
boiling  for  a  moment  in  water  on  the  slide  (always  under  a  cover-glass), 
or  by  mounting  in  dilute  alkali  or  in  chloral  hydrate. 

It  is  often  convenient  to  examine  the  finely-ground  material  or  iso- 
lated fragments,  first  in  cold  water,  then  after  treatment  with  a  small 
drop  of  iodine  tincture,  again  after  boiling,  and  still  again  after  treatment 
with  a  small  drop  of  5  per  cent  potash  or  soda  solution. 

Crude-fiber  Process.  As  most  cattle  foods  contain  a  considerable 
amount  of  the  bran  coats  and  other  tissues,  there  is  commonly  no  need 
of  resorting  to  the  methods  described  under  flour,  as  a  means  of  accumu- 
lating the  tissues  from  a  rather  large  quantity  of  the  material,  although 
as  a  means  of  clearing  the  tissues,  some  of  these  methods,  particularly 
Lauck's  method,  or  what  is  practically  the  same  thing,  the  crude-fiber 
process,  are  occasionally  useful.  After  weighing  the  fiber  a  portion 
obtained  in  the  quantitative  determination  of  crude  fiber  may  be  used 
for  microscopic  examination,  as  the  subsequent  determination  of  ash 
in  this  fiber  is  not  appreciably  affected  by  the  removal  of  the  small  quan- 
tity necessary  for  the  purpose/ 


CEREALS    (Grammea). 

Most  grasses  are  hermaphrodite,  the  organs  essential  to  fertilization 
being  in  the  same  blossom,  although  in  some  blossoms  either  the  male 
or  female  element  is  abortive.  Maize  is,  however,  monoecious,  the  flowers 
of  the  tassels  being  entirely  male,  those  of  the  ear  entirely  female. 

The  inflorescence  is  in  panicles,  racemes,  or  spikes,  made  up  of  spike- 
lets  (Fig.  32,  A),  each  consisting  of  two  lower  scales  (empty  glumes)  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  axis,  and  one  or  more  flowers'  (B),  each  usually 
inclosed  by  two  scales,  the  one  (flowering  glume)  situated  on  the 
outer  side,  the  other  (palet)  two-veined  and  two-keeled,  situated  on 
the  inner  side  with  its  back  toward  the  axis.  Sometimes  the  flower  is 


CEREALS.  Oi 

inclosed  by  only  one  scale,  in  which  case  it  is  the  palet  that  is  lacking. 
Two  minute  hyaline  scales  (lodicules)  are  commonly  present  at  the  base 
of  the  flower  and  rarely  a  third  occurs  within  the  palet.  The  beard 
of  the  spikelets  consists  of  coarse  bristles,  often  barbed,  which  may  be 
borne  on  the  glumes  or  palets,  in  which  case  they  are  known  as  awns 
(e.g.,  wheat),  or  may  spring  from  the  base  of  the  spikelet  (e.g.,  Setaria). 
Commonly  there  are  three  stamens  (rarely  one,  two,  four,  or  six)  with 
slender  filaments  and  versatile  anthers.  The  pistil  has  a  one-celled 
ovary  containing  a  single  ovule,  and  one  to  three  styles  with  feather- 
like  stigmas.  The  flowering  glume  and  palet,  although  free  at  the  time 


FIG.  32.  Wheat  (Triticum  sativum).  A  spikelet  with  four  flowers;  B  single  flower;  C 
whole  fruit  or  caryopsis;  D  fruit  in  longitudinal  section,  i  and  2  empty  glumes;  b 
flowering  glumes;  v  palets;  e  embryo.  (SCHUMANN.) 

of  flowering,  sometimes  become  closely  adherent  to  the  fruit  during 
ripening  (e.g.,  barley),  or  so  closely  envelop  it  that  they  are  not  sepa- 
rated by  threshing  (e.g.,  oats). 

In  general  appearance  the  cereal  grains  resemble  seeds,  but  a  study 
of  their  development  clearly  shows  that  they  are  true  fruits.  Each  con- 
sists of  a  single  fruit  leaf  with  edges  rolled  over  and  grown  together,  the 
groove  on  the  ventral  side  of  wheat  and  other  grains  marking  the  line  of 
juncture. 

The  fruit  (Fig.  32,  D\  Fig.  62)  consists  of  the  bulky  endosperm  and  the 
small  embryo  embedded  in  the  endosperm  at  the  base  of  the  grain  on  the 
dorsal  side,  the  whole  being  encased  by  the  pericarp  and  spermoderm.  The 
outer  cell-layer  of  endosperm  (in  barley,  two  or  more  of  the  outer  layers) 
contains  proteid  matters  but  no  starch;  the  larger  part  of  the  endosperm, 
however,  is  a  mass  of  large  cells  closely  packed  with  starch  grains.  In 
the  embryo  three  distinct  parts  are  evident:  the  plumule,  consisting 
of  undeveloped  leaves,  the  radicle  or  rootlet,  and  attached  to  these  on 
the  side  adjoining  the  endosperm,  the  scutellum  (cotyledon),  which  at 
the  time  of  sprouting  draws  the  nutritive  matter  from  the  endosperm  and 


62  GRAIN. 

conveys  it  to  the  young  plantlet.     The  embryo  contains  fat  and  proteid 
but  no  starch. 

Microscopic  Characters  of  the  Cereals. 

The  Glumes  and  Palets  have  much  the  same  structure  as  the  leaves 
of  which  they  are  but  modifications,  and  normally  contain  four  distinct 
tissues : 

1.  The  Outer  Epidermis  is  made  up  largely  of  cells  with  wavy  outline, 
arranged  end  to  end  in  rows.     Usually  these  wavy  cells   are  strongly 
elongated,   and    between    them   are   interposed  isodiametric    cells    often 
extended  beyond  the  surface  as  hairs  ("silica  cells")  and  twin  cells,  one 
of  the  twins  being  usually  crescent-shaped. 

2.  The  Hypoderm  consists   of  one  or  more  layers   of  sclerenchyma 
elements  resembling  bast  fibers.     This  layer  is  imperfectly  developed  or 
entirely  absent  in  the  thin  glumes  and  palets. 

3.  Spongy  Parenchyma,  corresponding    to    the    mesophyl    of    leaves, 
makes  up  the  third  layer  of  variable  thickness.     In  oats  these  cells  are 
star-shaped,  but  in  the  other  cereals  they  are  more  or  less  rectangular 
in  form. 

4.  The  Inner  Epidermis  is  usually  of  thin-walled  cells  with  less  striking 
characters  than  the  outer  epidermis.     Hairs  are  often  present. 

The  Pericarp  differs  greatly  in  the  number  of  layers  and  the  form  of 
the  cells,  but  in  general  consists  of  four  distinct  tissues: 

1.  The  Epicarp  of  porous  cells,  with  or  without  hairs  at  the  apex  of 
the  grain. 

2.  The  Hypoderm  and  Mesocarp,  often  of  porous  cells. 

3.  The  Cross  Cells  (so  named  by  Wigand),  a  layer  of  cells  transversely 
extended. 

4.  The  Tube   Cells    (so    named  by  Vogl)   or  endocarp,  consisting  of 
detached  vermiform  cells  longitudinally  arranged. 

The  Spermoderm  of  thin-walled  cells  is  usually  inconspicuous. 

The  Perisperm,  or  nucellar  layer,  also  known  as  the  hyaline  layer, 
usually  forms  a  thin  coat  of  one  or  two  layers  of  colorless,  more  or  less 
obliterated  cells,  which,  with  suitable  preparation  and  Bunder  favorable 
conditions,  may  be  seen  in  surface  view.  In  the  case  of  sorghum,  the 
layer  is  conspicuous  and  of  diagnostic  value. 

The  Endosperm,  i.  The  so-called  "  Aleurone  Cells,  "  or  "gluten  cells  " 
— both  misnomers,  as  they  contain  neither  aleurone  grains  nor  gluten- 
form  several  layers  in  barley,  but  only  one  layer  in  other  cereals.  These 


CEREALS.  63 

cells  have  thick  walls,  and  contain  proteid  matter  and  fat  but  no 
starch.1 

2.  The  Starch  Parenchyma,  which  makes  up  the  great  bulk  of  the 
fruit,  is  closely  packed  with  starch  grains  varying  greatly  in  shape  and 
size  according  to  the  species. 

Embryo.  The  cells  are  small  and,  like  the  aleurone  cells,  contain 
much  oil  and  proteid  matter  but  no  starch. 

Analytical  Keys  to  the  Cereals  and  Graminaceous  Weed  Seeds. 

I.    Key  Based  on  the  Structure  of  the  Thick  Glumes  and  Palets. 

A.  Outer  epidermis  of  cells  with  wavy  side  walls,  interspersed  with  circular  cells  (often 

forming  hairs)  and  twin  cells. 
(<z)  Spongy  parenchyma  of  star-shaped  cells. 

1.  Circular  cells  forming  conical  hairs;  saw-edge  of  hairs  on  keel  of  palet. . .  Oats. 
(6)  Spongy  parenchyma  of  rectangular  cells. 

2.  Circular  cells  and  saw-edge  of  hairs  as  in  oats. 

Spelt,  Emmer,  One-grained  Wheat. 

3.  Circular  cells  as  in  oats;  no  saw-edge  of  hairs  on  palet Barley. 

4.  Circular  cells  represented  by  hair  scars Sorghum. 

5.  Circular  cells  large  and  porous;  wavy  cells  often  very  short Darnel. 

6.  Circular  cells  porous  with  wavy  side  walls;  wavy  cells  long Chess. 

B.  Outer  epidermis  of  porous  and  non-porous  cells,  with  thick,  but  not  wavy  walls, 

interspersed  with  hairs. 

7.  Cells  on  the  papery  ends  with  thin  wavy  walls Maize. 

C.  Outer  epidermis  mostly  of  one  kind  of  cell  with  thick  deeply  sinuous  side  walls. 

(a)  Epidermal  cells  broader  than  long,  colorless. 

8.  Surface  rough;  spongy  parenchyma  of  rectangular  cells Rice. 

(b)  Epidermal  cells  somewhat  longer  than  broad,  colorless,  or  mottled. 

9.  Surface  smooth,  colorless Common  Millet. 

10.  Surface  with  narrow  wrinkles,  colorless German  Millet. 

n.  Surface  with  narrow  wrinkles,  mottled Green  Foxtail. 

•12.  Surface  with  broader  wrinkles,  mottled Yellow  Foxtail. 

1  The  early  microscopists,  believing  that  the  outer  starch-free  layer  of  the  endosperm  was 
the  seat  of  the  gluten  of  the  grain,  gave  to  these  cells  the  name  gluten  cells.  Schenk,  how- 
ever, in  1872  showed  that  gluten,  like  starch,  was  present  only  in  the  inner  endosperm  cells, 
and  Johannsen  in  1883  reached  the  conclusion  that  the  contents  of  the  so-called  gluten  cells 
were  aleurone  grains  embedded  in  fat.  During  the  past  twenty  years  the  name  aleurone 
cell  has  been  slowly  taking  the  place  of  the  earlier  name.  v.  Hohnel,  Berthold,  and  other 
authors  have  not  only  accepted  this  view,  but  have  used  the  size  of  the  so-called  aleurone 
grains  as  a  means  of  distinguishing  the  different  cereals,  a  procedure  which  has  been  severely 
criticized  by  Wittmack,  Moeller,  and  others. 

Recently  Brahm  and  Buchwald  have  found  that  the  name  aleurone  cells  is  quite  as  erroneous 
as  the  earlier  term,  since  what  appear  to  be  aleurone  grains  embedded  in  fat  are  really  fat 
globules  in  a  ground  substance  of  amorphous  proteid  matter.  They  state  that  a  more  exact 
name  would  be  "protein  cells",  or,  better  still,  "starch-free  peripheral  cells"  of  the  endosperm. 


64  GRAIN 

II.    Key  Based  on  the  Structure  of  the  Bran  Tissues. 

A.  Cross  cells  elongated  polygonal,  side  by  side  in  rows,  forming  a  continuous  layer. 

(a)  Side  walls  of  cross  cells  thick,  distinctly  beaded. 

1.  Hairs  less  than  i  mm.  long  with  narrow  lumen ^ Wheat. 

2.  Hairs  often  over  i  mm.  long Spelt. 

(b)  Side  walls  of  cross  cells  indistinctly  beaded. 

3.  End  walls  often,  swollen;  hairs  with  broad  lumen Rye. 

4.  End  walls  of  cross  cells  thin  (not  swollen) Emmer. 

5.  Cross  cells  as  in  rye,  hairs  as  in  wheat One-grained  Wheat. 

(c)  Walls  of  cross  cells  thin,  not  beaded. 

6.  Cross  cells  in  two  layers Barley. 

7.  Hairs  long,  narrow  at  base Oats. 

8.  Fungus  layer  usually  present Darnel. 

B.  Cross  cells  vermiform,  forming  an  interrupted  layer. 

9.  Epicarp  cells  transversely  elongated ;    walls  non-porous;    end  walls  deeply 
sinuous Rice. 

10.  Epicarp  and  hypoderm  with  wavy  beaded  side  walls Sorghum. 

Common    Millet,    German 


ii.  Epicarp  with  wavy  side  walls,  not  beaded 


Millet,     Green    Foxtail 


Yellow  Foxtail.1 
C.  Cross  cells  forming  spongy  parenchyma. 

12.  Cells  with  long  narrow  arms;   epicarp  and  mesocarp  of  s  rongly  developed, 

elongated,  beaded  cells;  endosperm  thin-walled Maize. 

13.  Cells  star-shaped  or  irregular;  epicarp  not  beaded;    mesocarp  undeveloped; 

endosperm  thick -walled Chess. 

///.    Key  Based  on  the  Characters  of  the  Starch  Grains. 

A.  Large  starch  grains  mostly  over  20  /*,  round  with  indistinct  hilum;   feeble  crosses, 

with  polarized  light. 

1.  Many  grains  over  50  ft Rye. 

2.  Few  grains  over  50  ,n Wheat,  Spelt,  Emmer,  One-grained  Wheat. 

3.  No  grains  over  50  ft Barley. 

B.  Large  starch  grains  mostly  over  15  /*,  polygonal  or  round,  with  distinct  hilum. 

4.  Distinct  crosses  with  polarized  light Maize,  Sorghum. 

C.  Grains  less  than  20  («  mostly  polygonal,  often  in  round  or  ellipsoidal  aggregates. 

5.  Occasionally  spindle-shaped  grains Oats. 

6.  No  spindle-shaped  grains Rice,  Darnel. 

D.  Grains  less  than  20  //,  mostly  polygonal,  never  in  rounded  aggregates. 

Common    Millet,    German 


7.  Beaded  network  on  treatment  with  alkali 


Millet,     Green     Foxtail, 


Yellow  Foxtail.1 
E.  Grains  less  than  20  ,«,  ellipsoidal. 

8.  Hilum  elongated,  very  distinct Chess. 

1  Distinction  by  tissues  of  chaff. 


WHEAT.  65 


WHEAT. 

Common  wheat  (Triticum  sativum  var.  vulgare  (Vill.)  Hackel),  the 
most  important  of  the  bread  cereals,  is  grown  throughout  the  temperate 
regions  of  the  earth.  The  numerous  cultivated  varieties  differ  greatly 
in  habit  of  growth,  hardiness,  presence  or  absence  of  beards,  and  also  in 
the  form,  size,  and  color,  of  the  grain,  but  they  are  commonly  grouped  in 
two  classes:  the  "  Winter  Wheats, "  or  those  sown  in  the  fall  and  therefore 
adapted  only  to  the  warmer  regions,  and  the  "  Spring  or  Summer  Wheats,'* 
including  the  varieties  grown  in  colder  countries. 

The  grain  of  all  these  cultivated  varieties  readily  separates  from  the 
chaff  on  threshing,  and  is  termed  "naked  wheat"  in  contradistinction  to 
the  spelts,  which,  like  barley  and  oats,  are  closely  invested  by  the  chaff. 

Other  species  and  varieties  of  wheat  yielding  naked  grains  are  Polish 
wheat  (T.  Polonicum  L.),  English- wheat  (T..  sativum  var.  turgidum  (L.) 
Hackel),  macaroni,  hard  or  glass  wheat  (7".  sativum  var.  durum  (Desf.) 
Hackel),  and  hedgehog,  or  dwarf  wheat  (T.  sativum  var.  compactum 
(Host.)  Hackel). 

The  grain  of  common  wheat  (Fig.  32,  C  and  D)  is  oval  in  longitudinal 
section,  heart-shaped  in  transverse  section.  Other  characteristics  are  the 
slightly -keeled  back  with  a  pronounced  depression  at  the  base  marking  the 
position  of  the  embryo,  the  deep,  longitudinal  groove  on  the  ventral  side, 
and  finally  the  beard  on  the  end.  In  color  the  kernels  vary  from  light 
yellow  to  brown.  Rye  kernels  are  longer,  more  slender,  more  pointed 
at  the  base,  and  of  a  darker  color. 

The  kernels  of  macaroni  and  English  wheat  resemble  those  of  com- 
mon wheat  in  shape,  but  are  larger. 

Polish  wheat  is  distinguished  from  all  the  other  wheats  by  its  long 
(often  12  mm.),  slender,  rye-shaped  kernels  with  a  sharp-pointed  base. 

HISTOLOGY. 

.•: 

As  the  glumes  and  palets  of  all  the  varieties  named  remain  with  the 
straw  on  threshing,  they  do  not  enter  into  the  composition  of  mill  products, 
and  their  anatomy  is  for  us  of  no  moment.  All  the  naked  wheats  have 
practically  the  same  structure. 

After  soaking  the  grain  for  some  hours  in  water  cross-sections  may 
be  cut  with  a  razor  or  microtome,  and  surface  preparations  obtained  by 
scraping. 


66 


GRAIN. 


Pericarp   (Fig.  33,  F).     i.  The  Epicarp  (Fig.   33,  ep  ;    Fig.  34)  is 
composed  of  colorless  cells,   which,   except  at  the  apex  of  the  grain, 


FIG.  33.  Wheat.  Cross  section  through  bran  coats  and  outer  endosperm  of  fruit.  F  peri- 
carp consists  of  ep  epicarp,  m  mesocarp,  qu  cross  cells  and  sch  tube  cells;  5"  consists 
of  br  spermoderm  and  h  perisperm;  endosperm  consists  of  K  aleurone  cells  and  E 
starch  cells.  X 160.  (MOELLER.) 

are  longitudinally  elongated  and  are  arranged    end   to    end    (but   not 
side  by  side)  in  rows.     A  thin  cuticle  covers  the  outer  wall.     On  treat- 


FIG.  34.     Wheat.     Epicarp  in  surface 
view.      X.3OO.     (MOELLER.) 


FlG.  35.    Wheat.    Hairs  from  the  apex 
of  the  grain.    X'3oo.    (MOELLER.) 


ment  with  potash,  the  walls  swell  and  turn  yellow.  Seen  in  surface 
view,  both  the  side  and  end  walls  appear  distinctly  beaded,  the  double 
side  walls  being  about  4  p  thick.  At  the  apex  the  cells  are  more  nearly 


IV HE  AT. 


67 


isodiametric,  and  between  them  arise  numerous  hairs  (Fig.  35)  which 
vary  up  to  i  mm.  in  length  and  (measured  near  the  base)  up  to  25  //  in 
diameter.  Most  of  them  are  awl-shaped,  with  a  more  or  less  globular 
base,  and,  as  Wittmack  first  noted,  a  narrow  lumen  or  cell-cavity,  the 
breadth  of  which  is  less  than  the  thickness  of  the  walls. 

2.  The  Mesocarp  (Fig.  33,  m),  consists  of  two  or  three  layers  of  cells, 
which  differ  little  from  those  of  the  epicarp. 

3.  Cross  Cells  (Figs.  33  and  36,  qu).   Beneath  the  mesocarp  is  another 
layer  of  cells  with  porous  radial  walls,  but  these  are  transversely  elon- 
gated and,  as  may  be  seen  in  surface  view,  are  arranged  not  end  to  end 
but  side  by  side  in  rows.     Over  the  larger  part  of  the  surface,  the  cells 


gu. 


sch 


^—^ 

FIG.  36.     Wheat.     Surface  view  of  qu  cross  cells  and  sch  tube  cells.     Xsoo.     (MOELLER.) 


are  100-200  ft  long  and  15-25  fi  broad,  but  in  the  region  of  the  apex 
they  are  shorter  and  more  irregular  in  form.  The  very  distinctly  porous, 
double  side  walls  are  about  7  p  thick,  but  the  end  and  outer  walls  are  often 
much  thinner,  and  the  end  walls  are  never  swollen  as  in  rye.  Inter- 
cellular spaces  occur  rarely.  Treatment  with  alkali  imparts  a  yellow 
color,  but  does  not  appreciably  swell  any  of  the  walls. 

This  layer,  from  the  diagnostic  standpoint,  is  the  most  important  of 
the  bran  tissues. 

4.  Tube  Cells  (Figs.  33  and  36,  sch).  Instead  of  an  unbroken  layer 
of  cells,  the  endocarp  of  wheat,  as  of  most  of  the  cereals,  consists  of  more 
or  less  detached  vermiform  cells  arranged  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the 
grain.  Oftentimes  two  adjoining  cells  are  in  interrupted  contact,  with 
circular  intercellular  spaces  formed  by  sharp  bends  in  the  walls,  suggest- 


68 


GRAIN. 


Ing   that    this    layer   is    but   disintegrated    spongy  parenchyma.     Cross- 
sections  of  these  cells  are  circular  or  elliptical. 

Spermoderm  (Figs.  33  and  37,  br).  In  cross-section,  before  treat- 
ment with  reagents,  the  two  layers  of  the  spermoderm  appear  like  yellow- 
brown,  structureless  membranes,  the  inner  somewhat  darker  than  the 
outer;  but  on  treatment  with  Javelle  water,  the  cell  structure  can  often 
be  recognized.  Owing  to  their  brown  color,  the  layers  are  readily  found 
in  surface  preparations.  The  thin-walled,  elongated,  pointed  cells  of 
the  two  layers  cross  one  another. 


FIG.  37.     Wheat.     Surface  view  of  sch  tube  cells,  br  two  crossing  layers  of  the  spermoderm, 
and  h  perisperm.     X  300.     (MOELLER.) 

Perisperm  (Figs.  33,  37  and  38,  h).  The  remains  of  the  nucellus  or 
body  of  the  ovule,  known  as  the  "nucellar  layer,"  and  by  some  authors 
because  of  its  colorless,  almost  structureless  appearance,  as  the  "hya- 
line layer,"  can  be  seen  in  surface  preparations  only  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions.  To  differentiate  this  layer,  as  well  as  others  of 
the  grain,  Moeller  proceeds  as  follows :  Warm  a  whole  kernel  with  alkali, 
wash  in  water  containing  a  drop  of  acetic  acid,  remove  to  a  slide  a  por- 


WHEAT. 


69 


lion  of  the  inner  skin,  which  may  be-  readily  separated  after  this  treat- 
ment, and  gently  press  sidewise  with  a 
cover-glass.  If  zinc  chloride  iodine  is 
now  added,  both  cell  layers  of  the  spermo- 
derm  are  colored  brown,  the  perisperm 
and  the  remaining  coats  blue. 

Endosperm,  i.  The  Aleurone  Layer 
(Figs.  33  and  38,  K)  is  but  one  cell  layer, 
thick.  These  cells,  rectangular  in  trans- 
verse section,  rounded  polygonal  in  sur- 
face view,  are  25-75  P  in  diameter. 
Viewed  in  water,  the  double  walls  are 
about  7  p  thick;  but  on  treatment  with 
alkali,  they  swell  considerably  and  also 
take  on  a  yellow  color.  This  layer  con- 
tains proteids  but  no  starch.  Often  the 
nucleus  of  the  cell  is  clearly  seen, 
especially  in  surface  mounts. 

2.  Starch  Parenchyma   (Fig.   33,  E).    FlG 
The  large,  isodiametric,  thin-walled  cells 
contain  starch  grains  (Fig.  39)   of  two 
forms:    (i)  large,  lenticular  grains,  mostly  28-40  p  (rarely  50  p)  with 
indistinct  rings  and  hilum;  (2)  small  rounded  or  polygonal  grains,  usually 

less  than  8  p.  The  large 
grains  lying  on  edge  are 
more  or  less  elliptical  in 
outline;  with  polarized  light 
indistinct  crosses  dividing 
each  grain  into  four  equal 
parts  are  evident  (Fig.  572, 
III).  The  small  grains  are 
detached  members  of  aggre- 
gates, which  are  seldom 
found  intact. 

Embryo.    Tissues  of  the 
embryo  show  little  differen- 
tiation.   The  cells  are  small, 
seldom     exceeding    25    p. 
They  contain  fat  and  aleurone  grains,  but  no  starch.     Treatment  of  sec- 


.. 

Perisperm    and    K    aleurone    cells. 

X300.       (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  39. 


(MOELLER.) 


70  GRAIN. 

tions  with  a  mixture  of  iodine  green  or  methyl  green  and  fuchsin  stains 
the  cell  nuclei  green,  the  aleurone  grains  red.  In  many  of  the  cells 
the  contents  is  largely  nuclear  substance. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole-wheat  Products.  Roasted  Whole  Wheat  is  used  as  a  coffee 
substitute  and  adulterant.  In  over-roasted  kernels  it  is  often  difficult 
to  identify  the  tissues. 

Graham  Flour  is  the  ground  wheat  kernel  with  nothing  removed. 

Rolled  Wheat,  a  popular  breakfast  food,  is  the  wheat  kernel  rolled 
and  sometimes  partially  cooked,  but  not  ground. 

Shredded  Wheat  is  prepared  by  shredding  the  kernel  in  machines  of 
peculiar  construction,  and  cooking. 

"Force,"  "Malta-Vita,"  "Zest,  "and  numerous  proprietary  foods, 
consist  chiefly  of  wheat  which  has  not  only  been  cooked,  but  also  sub- 
jected to  a  malting  process,  thus  converting  a  portion  of  the  starch  into 
maltose  and  dextrines.  They  come  into  the  market  either  granulated 
or  flaked. 

These  products  contain  all  the  histological  elements  of  the  wheat  kernel; 
but  in  those  which  have  been  cooked,  the  starch  grains  are  more  or  less 
distorted.  The  most  characteristic  tissues  are  the  cross  cells  with  dis- 
tinctly beaded  side  walls  and  thin  (never  swollen)  end  walls,  and  the  hairs 
i  mm.  or  less  long  with  lumen  thinner  than  the  walls. 

Flour  and  Other  Decorticated  Wheat  Products.  Wheat  Flour  con- 
sists chiefly  of  the  starchy  portion  of  the  grain  with  fragments  of  hairs 
which  pass  endwise  through  the  bolts,  and,  less  frequently,  other  tis- 
sues. The  microscopist  should  note  the  size,  form  and  deportment 
with  polarized  Ijght,  of  the  starch  grains,  also  the  characters  of  the  tissues 
accumulated  by  one  of  the  methods  described  on  pp.  55-56. 

In  Europe  rye  flour  is  an  occasional  adulterant  of  wheat  flour,  and 
inferior  wheat  flour  is  a  common  adulterant  of  rye  flour.  Rye  flour  is 
characterized  by  the  somewhat  larger  size  of  the  starch  grains  and  the 
presence  of  hairs  with  wide  lumen.  In  America  maize  starch  or  flour 
is  fraudulently  added  to  wheat  flour.  Maize  starch  grains  are  identified 
by  their  size,  polygonal  form,  and  distinct  crosses  with  polarized  light. 

Of  great  service  in  the  identification  of  wheat  flour,  even  in  mixtures' 
containing  as  little  as  10  per  cent,  is  the  test  which  was  devised  in  1852  by 
Bamihl,  a  Prussian  custom-house  official.  A  small  portion  of  the  flour  and 
enough  water  to  form  a  rather  thick  paste  are  thoroughly  mixed  on  a  slide 


IV HE  AT.  71 

by  rubbing  with  a  cover-glass.  Wheat  flour  yields  by  this  treatment 
yellowish,  stringy,  glutinous  masses  in  considerable  amount,  whereas  maize 
flour  yields  only  a  very  small  amount,  and  rye  flour  none  whatever.  The 
test  is  of  value  in  detecting  wheat  flour  in  buckwheat  and  rye  flour. 

Wheat  flour,  if  made  into  a  dough  and  kneaded  in  a  stream  of  water 
to  wash  away  the  starch,  finally  yields  an  elastic  mass  of  gluten;  other 
kinds  of  flour  are  entirely  washed  away  by  this  treatment  and  yield  no 
gluten. 

Weed  seeds  and  other  impurities  of  flour  are  discussed  on  pp.  49-52, 
and  methods  of  examination  on  pp.  52-56. 

Wheat  Bread,  Biscuit,  and  other  bakers'  products  contain  all  the 
histological  elements  of  flour,  but  the  starch  grains  are  more  or  less  dis- 
torted (Fig.  31).  In  bread  and  other  products  raised  with  yeast,  cells  of 
the  yeast  plant  are  also  present. 

"Grits,"  "Cream  of  Wheat,''  etc.,  are  coarsely  ground  kernels  freed 
from  bran,  and  differ  from  flour  chiefly  in  mechanical  condition. 

By-products.  Wheat  Bran  is  an  important  cattle  food,  a  common 
adulterant,  and,  after  roasting,  an .  ingredient  of  coffee  substitutes.  It 
consists  largely  of  the  pericarp,  spermoderm,  and  gluten  cells,  with  frag- 
ments of  the  germ,  and  considerable  adhering  starch.  The  cross  cells, 
hairs,  and  starch  grains  should  be  carefully  noted. 

Among  the  accidental  impurities  of  bran  are  the  hulls  and  other  ele- 
ments of  various  weed  seeds.  The  black  hulls  of  cockle  are  distinguished 
from  those  of  black  bindweed  by  their  rough  surface  as  well  as  by  the 
characteristic  tissues.  Other  weed  seeds  of  wheat  are  considered  on 
pp.  145-148- 

In  bran  adulterated  with  ground  corn-cob,  hard  lumps  of  the  woody 
zone,  and  hard  glumes  may  be  found  under  the  dissecting  lens,  or  by 
chewing  the  bran.  These,  as  well  as  the  white  or  red  membraneous 
chaff,  may  be  identified  by  the  methods  described  on  p.  96. 

Corn  Bran,  a  common  adulterant,  is  identified  by  the  thick  pericarp. 
Broom-corn  waste,  coffee  hulls,  peanut  shells,  and  some  other  adulterants 
may  also  be  detected  by  their  microscopic  characters. 

Wheat  Middlings  is  a  term  used  to  describe  various  products  inter- 
mediate between  flour  and  bran,  some  being  chiefly  starch  matter,  others 
bran  finely  ground. 

Wheat  Germs,  separated  from  the  flour  and  bran  in  the  flour  mills, 
are  used  both  as  a  human  food  ("Fould's  Wheat  Germ")  and  as  a  cattle 
food.  They  are  much  smaller  in  size  than  those  of  maize,  the  only  other 


72  GRAIN. 

cereal  from  which  the  germs  are  removed  on  a  commercial  scale;    but 
when  finely  ground  cannot  be  readily  distinguished  from  them. 

Wheat  Gluten,  a  by-product  from  the  manufacture  of  starch,  contains 
a  preponderance  of  the  nitrogenous  materials  (protein  often  40  and  some- 
times 60  or  more  per  cent).  The  starch  grains  are  more  or  less  distorted. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Berg  (3);  Blyth  (5);  Bohmer  (6,  23); 
Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16,  17);  Harz  (18);  Hassall  (18);  Leach  (25);  Mace  (26); 
Meyer,  A.  (27);  Moeller  (29,  32);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Schimper  (37);  Tschirch 
u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (43,  45);  Wittmack  (10). 

BALLAND:  Sur  la  falsification  des  farines  avec  le  seigle,  le  sarrassin,  le  riz,  1'orge,  le 

mai's,  les  feres  et  la  fecule  de  pomme  de  terre.  Jour,  pharm.  chim.  1899, 9,  239,  286. 
BAMIHL:  Pogg.  Ann.  1852,  161. 

BARNSTEIN:  Roggen  und  Weizen.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1902,  56,  25. 
BAUMANN:  Nachweis  von  Maisstarke  im  Weizenmehl.    Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm. 

1899,  2,  27. 
BENECKE:  Zum  Nachweise  der  Mahlprodukte  des  Roggens  in  den  Mahlprodukten  des 

Weizens.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1889,  36,  337. 
BERTHOLD  :  Ueber  den  mikroskopischen  Nachweis  des  Weizenmehles  im  Roggenmehle. 

Ztschr.  f.  landw.  Gewerbe.     Beilage,  1883. 

BESSEY:  The  Structure  of  the  Wheat  Grain.     Bull.  Neb.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  1894,  32. 
BRAHM  und  BUCHWALD:  Botanische  und  chemische  Untersuchungen  an  prahistorischen 

Getreidekornern  aus  alten  Graberfunden.     Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm.  1904, 

7,12. 

COLLIN:  Examen  microscopique  des  farines  de  ble.     Jour,  pharm.  chim.  1898,  8,  97, 

150,  200. 
DANCKWORTT:  Ueber  Mehluntersuchungen  (Bamihl'sche  Probe).    Arch.  Pharm.  1871, 

145,  47 

HABERLANDT:  Wissensch.-prakt.  Untersuch.  auf  d.  Geb.  des  Pflanzenbaues.    1,  162. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Zur  mikroskopischen  Unterscheidung  des  Weizen-  und  Roggen- 

mehles.     Ztschr.  allg.  osterr.  Apoth.-Ver.  1887,  25,  143. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Ueber  die  Untersuchung  der    Mehle.     Oesterr.  Chem.-Ztg.  1899, 

2,  103- 

HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Ueber  die  Grimgkeit  der  Mehle.     Oesterr.  Chem.-Ztg.  1900,  3,  54. 
v.  HOHNEL:  Die  Starke  und  die  Mahlprodukte.     Kassel  und  Berlin,  1882. 
JOHANNSEN:  Studien  iiber  die  Kleberzellen  der  Getreidearten.     Bot.  Centralbl.  1883, 

15;  3°5- 

JUMELLE:  Sur  le  constitution  du  fruit  des  Graminees.     Comp.  rend.  1888,  107,  285. 
KLEEBERG:  Ueber  einen  einfachen  Nachweis  von  Weizenmehl  im  Roggenmehl.     Chem. 

Ztg.  1892,  1071. 

KORNICKER  und  WERNER:  Handbuch  des  Getreidebaues.     Berlin,  1885. 
KRAEMER:  An  Examination  of  Commercial  Flour.    Jour.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.  1899,  21,  650. 
KRASSER:    Mikroskopische   Prufung  des   Grieses.     Ztschr.    allg.   osterr.   Apoth.-Ver. 

1897,  35,  543. 


WHEAT.     SPELT.  73 

KRUTIZKY:    On   Some   Peculiarities  in   the   Structure   of   the   Caryopsis  of  Wheat. 

Uebers.  Leist.  Gebiet.  Bot.,  in  Russland  wahrend  1891,  St.  Peters'g,  1893,  62; 

also  in  Just's  Bot.  Jahresb.  1893,  21, 1  Abth.  571. 
KUDELKA:  Ueber  die  Entwicklung  und  den  Bau  der  Frucht-  und  Samenhaut  unserer 

Cerealien.     Dissertation,  Berlin,  1875. 
LANGE:  Die  Mikroskopische  Untersuchung  von  Mehl.     Ztschr.  angew.  Mikrosk.  1896, 

369- 

LEBBIN:  Arch.  Hyg.  28,  212. 

LE  ROY:  Zum  Nachweis  von  Sagespanen  im  Mehl.     Chem.  Ztg.  1898,  31;   1899,  264. 
MAURIZIO:  Kleberverteilung  im  Getreidekorn.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1902,  57,  405. 
MAURIZIO:  Getreide,  Mehl  und  Brot.     Berlin,  1903. 

MOELLER:  Die  Mikroskopie  der  Cerealien.     Pharm.   Centralh.  1884,  25,   507. 
NEVINNY:  Ueber  Verunreinigung  von  Mehlen.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1887,  1, 

205,  244. 
SCHLICKUM  :  Morphologischer  und  anatomischer  Vergleich  der  Kotyledonen  und  ersten 

Laubblatter  der  Keimpflanzen  der  Monokotylen.     Dissertation,  Marburg,  1895. 
SPAETH:  Nachweis  des  Mutterkorns  im  Mehl.     Pharm.  Centralh.  N.  F.  1896,  17,  542. 
STUTZER:  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel.    Handbuch  d.  Hyg.  3,  243. 
TARDIEN:  Eichelmehl    enthaltendes  Weizenmehl.     Ann.  chim.  analyt.  1898,  3,  307. 
VAUDIN  :  Sur  un  element  d'erreur  dans  la  recherche  du  riz  ajoute  a  la  farine  de  froment. 

Jour,  pharm.  chim.  1899,  9,  431. 
VINASSA:     Ueber    mikroskopische    Mehluntersuchung.     Ztschr.    Nahr.-Unters.    Hyg. 

1895,  9,  53. 
VOGL  :  Die  gegenwartig  am  haufigsten  vorkommenden  Verfalschungen  und  Verunreini- 

gungen  des  Mehles,  etc.     Wien,  1880. 
WAAGE:  Zur  Unterscheidung  von  Weizen-  und  Roggenmehl.     Apoth.-Ztg.  1892,  7, 

43°- 
WEINWURM  :  Ueber  die  Verteilung  der  einzelnen  Bestandteile  des  Roggen-  und  Weizen- 

kornes  auf  die  verschiedenen  Mahlprodukte.     Oesterr.-ungar.  Ztschr.  Zuckerind. 

1890,  19,  163. 
WEINWURM:  Ueber  eine  qualitative  und  quantitative  Bestimmung  von  Weizenmehl 

im  Roggenmehl.  Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-  u.  Genussm.  1898,  1,  98. 
WITTMACK:  Sitzgsber.  des  bot.  Ver.  f.  d.  Prov.  Brandenburg,  1882,  4. 
WITTMACK:  Anleitung  zur  Erkennung  organischer  und  unorganischer  Beimengungen 

im  Roggen-  und  Wiezenmehle.     Leipzig,  1884. 
WOY:   Vorbereitung  von   Mehlproben  zur   mikroskopischen  Untersuchung.     Ztschr. 

offentl.  Chem.  1900,  6,  213. 
Anon:  Kartoffelfaser  als  Falschungsmittel  fur  Kleie.     Pharm.  Centralh.  1896,  181. 

SPELT. 

The  three  so-called  "chaffy  wheats,"  spelt,  emmer,  and  one-grained 
wheat,  differ  from  the  common  varieties  in  that  the  threshed  grain,  like 
oats,  is  closely  invested  by  the  chaff. 

In  ancient  times  spelt  (T.  sativum  Spelta  (L.)  Hackel)  was  one  of  the 


74  GRAIN. 

leading  cereals  of  Egypt,-  Greece,  and  Rome,  but  at  the  present  time  is 
of  comparatively  little  importance.  Its  culture  is  limited  chiefly  to 
Southern  Germany  (particularly  Wurtemberg),  Switzerland,  and  Spain, 
and  is  slowly  giving  place  to  more  valuable  cereals. 

Each  of  the  more  or  less  four-sided,  loosely  arranged  spikelets  con- 
sists of  two  truncate  empty  glumes  clasping  two  to  three  flowers.  The 
flowering  glumes  are  thin,  many-nerved,  awned  or  awnless;  the  palets 
are  still  thinner,  two-keeled.  Some  varieties  have  smooth,  others  hairy 
chaff.  The  grain  is  triangular  with  a  dense  beard.  On  threshing,  the 
axis  breaks  at  the  joints  and  remains  attached  to  the  chaffy  spikelets. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  Empty  Glumes  are  thick,  and  of  horny  texture,  except  on  the 
very  edges,  where  they  are  membranous. 

1.  Outer  Epidermis.    As  is  true  of  most  chaffy  envelopes  of  cereals, 
the  outer  epidermis  consists  of   elongated  cells  with  wavy  walls,  "twin 
cells",  one  of  which  is  more  or  less  crescent-shaped,  and  circular  cells, 
the  latter  often  being  extended  beyond  the  surface  in  the  form  of  hairs. 
Except  on  the  edges,   the  cell-walls   are  thickened.     Stomata  occur  in 
rows  along  the  nerves. 

2.  Hypoderm.     Several   rows   of   thick- walled  fibers   are  present   ex- 
cept on  the  edges. 

3.  Spongy  Parenchyma  occasionally   is   present   beneath   the   nerves, 
but  does  not  form  a  continuous  layer. 

4.  The  Inner  Epidermis  is  much  like  the  outer  epidermis,  with  thick 
wavy-walled,  elongated  cells,   twin  cells,   circular  cells,   and   stomata. 

The  Flowering  Glume  is  thinner  than  the  empty  glumes. 

1.  The  Outer  Epidermis  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  the  empty 
glumes. 

2.  The  Hypoderm  Fibers  are  thin- walled  and  form  only  a  thin  layer. 

3.  Spongy  Parenchyma.     Rectangular  spongy  parenchyma  cells  form 
a  continuous  and  well-developed  layer  in  the  central  part  of  the  glume, 
but  are  lacking  on  the  edges. 

4.  Inner  Epidermis.     The  cells  are  elongated  polygonal  and  have  very 
thin  walls,  which  are  usually  straight,  but  near  the  nerves  are  often  wavy. 
Awl-shaped  hairs  with  swollen  bases  are  numerous,  especially  toward  the 
apex. 

Palets.  i.  The  Outer  Epidermis  is  practically  the  same  as  in  the 
other  envelopes.  Thick-walled,  tooth-like  hairs,  up  to  200  ;JL  in  length, 


SPELT.     EMMER.  75 

form  a  saw-edge  on  each  of  the  two  keels,  much  like  those  found  on  the 
palet  keels  of  oats. 

2.  Hypoderm  Fibers  with  thin  walls  occur  throughout,  except  at  the 
very  edges. 

3.  Spongy  Parenchyma  is  found  only  under  the  keels. 

4.  Inner   Epidermis.      Thin-walled,   elongated    polygonal    cells,   and 
short,  awl-shaped  hairs  with  globular  bases  form  the  inner  layer. 

Pericarp.  The  cells  of  the  Epicarp  and  Mesocarp  have  thinner  walls 
than  those  of  wheat.  Spelt  hairs  are  considerably  longer  than  wheat 
hairs,  often  reaching  1 500  ,« ;  the  breadth  of  the  lumen  in  some  of  them 
exceeds  the  thickness  of  the  walls.  The  cross  cells  of  wheat  and  spelt 
are  very  similar,  though  in  the  latter  the  walls  are  often  not  so  thick  nor 
so  distinctly  beaded.  Tube  cells  occur  in  considerable  numbers.  The 
remaining  layers  are  practically  as  described  under  wheat;  the  large 
starch  grains,  however,  are  somewhat  smaller. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  products  of  spelt  are  grits,  other  coarse  human  foods,  and  fodders. 

Spelt  chaff  is  distinguished  from  oat  chaff  by  the  rectangular  cells 
of  the  spongy  parenchyma.  Rows  of  tooth-like  hairs  form  a  saw- 
edge  on  the  palet  keels  of  both  spelt  and  oats  but  not  of  barley.  Hairs 
1000-1500  /j.  long,  such  as  occur  on  the  epicarp  of  spelt,  are  seldom 
or  never  found  in  wheat.  The  cross  cells  and  starch  cannot  be  dis- 
tinguished with  certainty  from  the  same  elements  of  wheat. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

HAUPTFLEISH:  Die  Spelzweizen.    Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1903,  58,  65. 

NETOLITZKY:    Mikroskopische   Untersuchung   ganzlich  verkohlter  vorgeschichtlicher 

Nahrungsmittel  aus  Tirol.     Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm.  1900,  3,  401. 
VOGL:    Die    wichtigsten    vegetabilischen    Nahrungs-  und    Genussmittel.      Berlin    u. 

Wien,  1899,  75. 

EMMER. 

Two-grained,  chaffy  wheat,  or  emmer  (Triticumsativumvar.  dicoccum 
(Schrank)  Hackel),  a  cereal  cultivated  since  prehistoric  times,  is  now 
of  little  importance,  its  culture  being  limited  chiefly  to  sections  of  South 
Germany,  Switzerland,  Spain,  Servia,  and  Italy. 

The  flattened,  often  hairy  spikelets  are  densely  crowded  in  the  spike. 


76  GR/41N. 

Both  of  the  empty  glumes  are  strongly  keeled  and  narrow  gradually  to 
the  blunt-pointed  apex,  the  keel  being  prolonged  into  a  short  tooth. 

HISTOLOGY  AND   DIAGNOSIS. 

The  glumes  and  palets  agree  closely  in  structure  with  those  of  spelt, 
and  the  same  is  usually  true  of  the  pericarp,  except  as  regards  the  cross 
cells.  These  latter  are  thin- walled  and,  as  was  rightly  noted  by  Haupt- 
fleisch,  are  even  less  distinctly  beaded  than  the  cross  cells  of  rye.  They 
are  distinguished  from  the  latter  by  the  thin  (not  swollen)  end  walls. 
According  to  Hauptfleisch,  the  epicarp  hairs  of  some  varieties  have  broad 
lumens  like  rye  hairs,  but  this  distinction  does  not  hold  good  for  all 
varieties  and  cannot  be  depended  on  in  diagnosis.  The  starch  grains 
are  slightly  smaller  than  in  common  wheat. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  Spelt,  p.  75 

ONE-GRAINED   WHEAT. 

So  distinct  are  the  macroscopic  characters  of  one-grained  wheat 
from  the  preceding  varieties  that  it  is  classed  as  a  separated  species 
(T.  monococcum  L.).  Only  one  fertile  flower  is  present  in  each  spikelet, 
hence  the  German  name  Einkorn  and  the  Latin  and  English  names 
above  given. 

The  empty  glumes  are  rather  thin,  and  have  the  nerve  of  the  keel  and 
the  two  side  nerves  continued  as  short  teeth.  Both  the  flowering  glume 
and  palet  are  membranous,  the  latter,  on  ripening,  splitting  longitudi- 
nally into  two  pieces. 

HISTOLOGY  AND   DIAGNOSIS. 

The  glumes  and  palets  have  the  same  general  structure  as  the  cor- 
responding parts  of  spelt,  but  the  layers  are  not  so  robustly  developed. 
Hauptfleisch  has  correctly  observed  that  the  awl-shaped  hairs  of  the  inner 
epidermis  of  the  flowering  glume  are  shorter  than  those  of  either  spelt 
or  emmer.  In  this  layer  the  cell-walls,  especially  over  the  nerves,  are 
often  wavy.  The  epicarp  hairs  of  one-grained  and  common  wheat  are 
not  distinguishable,  but  the  cross  cells  in  the  former  are  thin-walled  and 
indistinctly  beaded  much  as  in  cmmer  and  rye. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  Spelt,  p.  75. 


RYE.  77 

RYE. 

Rye  (Secale  cereale  L.)  is  botanically  closely  related  to  wheat  and 
ranks  next  to  it  in  importance  as  a  bread  cereal. 

The  naked  kernels  are  longer,  more  slender,  sharper  keeled,  sharper 
pointed  at  the  base  and  darker  colored  than  those  of  wheat;  they  are 
also  not  so  plump  nor  so  uniform  in  form,  size,  and  color. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  rye  kernel  is  in  general  structure  the  same  as  the  wheat  kernel, 
but  some  of  the  layers  show  differences  in  detail  which  are  of  great  im- 
portance in  diagnosis.  Treatment  of  sections  with  cold  alkali  or  chloral 
hydrate  swells  the  walls  of  the  epicarp,  middle  layer,  and  perisperm, 
and  aids  in  differentiating  them. 

Pericarp  (Fig.  40).  i.  The  Epicarp  is  distinguished  from  the  cor- 
responding layer  of  wheat  by  the  thinner  and  less  distinctly  beaded  walls 
of  the  cells,  and  the  thinner  walls  and  broader  lumens  of  the  hairs  (h). 
In  both  grains  the  epicarp  cells  are  longitudinally  elongated  except  at 
the  apex,  where  they  are  more  or  less  isodiametric.  Often,  but  not  al- 
ways, the  lumen  breadth  of  rye  hairs  is  greater  than  the  wall  thick- 
ness. Even  at  the  apex  of  such  hairs  the  lumen  is  distinct,,  whereas  in 
wheat  hairs  it  is  reduced  to  a  faint  line. 

2.  The  Mesocarp  or  Middle  Layer  is  only  one  cell  layer  thick,  and 
the  walls  are  thinner  than  in  wheat,  and  less  distinctly  beaded. 

3.  Cross  Cells  (qu).     As  in  wheat,  these  cells  cross  those  of  the  outer 
layers  at  right  angles,  and  are  further  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  they 
do  not  "break  joints,"  but  are  arranged  side  by  side  in  rows.     They 
are  200  /*  or  less  long  and  15-35  /"  wide.     The  side  walls  are  thinner 
and  less  distinctly  porous  than  in  wheat;    furthermore,   the  end  walls 
are  often  rounded  and  swollen,   with  pronounced  intercellular  spaces, 
whereas  in  wheat  they  are  thinner  than  the  side  walls  and  without  spaces. 

4.  The  Tube  Cells  are  not  numerous. 

The  Spermoderm  and  Perisperm  of  wheat  and  rye  are  hardly  dis- 
tinguishable. 

Endosperm,  i.  The  Aleurone  Cells,  according  to  Vogl,  are  smaller 
and  thicker-walled  than  in  wheat.  Moeller  notes  that  on  treatment 
with  alkali  the  cell-walls  swell  greatly  (Figs.  41  and  42). 

2.  The  Starch  Parenchyma  contains   starch  grains  (Fig.   43)   of  the 


GRAIN. 


wheat  type,  but  larger,  a  considerable  number  being  over  50  /*.     They 
often  display  delicate  concentric  rings,   also  fissures  radiating  from  the 


FIG.  40.     Rye  (Secale  cereale).     Outer  bran  layers  in  surface  view.     Epicarp  consists  of 
porous  cells,  h  hairs  and  *  hair  scars;  qu  cross  cells.     Xsoo.     (MOELLER.) 

hilum.    The  small  grains  are  round  or  angular,  seldom  in  aggregates. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole  Rye  Products.     Roasted  Whole  Rye  is  a  coffee  substitute  and 
adulterant. 


RYE.  79 

Rye  Graham  Flour.  The  ground  whole  kernel  is  used  for  coarse  bread. 
Starch  grains  (Fig.  43),  cross  cells  (Fig.  40,  qu),  and  hairs  (h)  are  the 
important  elements. 

Rye  Flour  prepared  by  the  usual  bolting  process  is  not  so  white  nor 
so  fine  as  wheat  and  usually  contains  more  bran  elements.  As  it  does 


FIG.  41.     Rye.     Aleurone  cells  in  water.  FIG.    42.      Rye.      Aleurone    cells 

(MOELLER.)  warmed  in  alkali.    (MOELLER.) 


not  contain  gluten  it  does  not  yield  a  glutinous,  stringy  mass  by  the 
Bamihl  test,  described  on  p.  70.  Furthermore,  the  dough  gradually 
washes  away  on  repeated  kneading  under  running  water.  The  large 
starch  grains  (larger  than  in  wheat)  often  with  radiating  fissures  (Fig.  43), 


FIG.  43.     Rye  Starch.     X  300.     (MOELLER.) 

the  hairs  (Fig.  40,  h)  with  lumen  breadth  often  greater  than  the  wall 
thickness,  and  occasional  fragments  of  cross  cells  (qu)  must  be  relied  on 
in  identification. 

By-products.     Rye  Bran  and  Rye  Middlings,  well-known  cattle  foods, 
contain  the  coats  of  the  grain  and  also  more  or  less  starch.     The  side 


8o  GRAIN. 

walls  of  the  epicarp,  mesocarp,  and  especially  the  cross  cells  (Fig.  40,  qu) 
are  thinner  and  less  distinctly  beaded  than  in  wheat.  Some  (but  not 
all)  the  cross  cells  have  swollen  end  walls. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  Bibliography  of  Wheat,  p.  72-73. 
EGGER:    Ueber  das  Vorkommen  blaugefarbten  Zellinhaltes  in  der  Kleberschicht  von 

Roggenkornern.     Arch.  Hyg.  1883,  1,  143. 
GREGORY:  Die  Membranverdickungen  der  sogenannten  Querzellen  in  der  Fruchtwand 

des  Roggens.     Beitrage  z.  wissensch.  Bot.  2,  165. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F. :  Zur  Mikroskopie  des  von  der  Presshefe  abgepressten  Roggenmehles. 

Ztschr.  allg.  osterr.  Apoth.-Ver.  1894,  32,  416. 


BARLEY. 

Barley  (Hordeum  sativum  L.),  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  the  cereals, 
is  still  cultivated  in  the  northern  countries  of  the  Old  World  as  a  bread 
grain,  and  throughout  the  temperate  zone  for  the  production  of  malt. 

The  spikes  consist  of  groups  of  three  one-flowered  spikelets  arranged 
alternately  on  opposite  sides  of  the  zigzag  rachis.  In  six-rowed  barley 
(H.  sativum  var.  hexastichon  (L.)  Hackel)  and  four-rowed  barley  (H. 
sativum  var.  vulgare  (L.)  Hackel)  all  of  the  flowers  are  fertile.  In  the 
former  variety  they  form  six  equidistant,  longitudinal  rows,  whereas 
in  the  latter  only  the  middle  flowers  are  arranged  in  distinct  rows,  alter- 
nating with  two  more  or  less  indistinct  rows  formed  by  the  side  flowers. 
Only  the  middle  flowers  of  two-rowed  barley  (H.  sativum  var.  distichon 
(L.)  Hackel)  are  perfect,  the  side  flowers  being  staminate  or  neuter  and 
much  reduced  in  size.  The  grain  of  six-rowed  and  four-rowed  barley 
and  of  many  two-rowed  varieties  is  so  closely  adherent  to  the  flowering 
glume  and  palet  that  it  is  not  freed  from  them  by  threshing,  but  the  grain 
of  some  of  the  two-rowed  barleys  is  naked  or  hulless. 

Characteristic  of  the  flowering  glume  are  the  five  prominent  ribs, 
the  middle  one  being  extended  into  a  long  awn,  which,  however,  breaks 
off  in  threshing.  The  palet  is  grooved  to  correspond"  with  the  groove 
in  the  caryopsis,  and  is  partially  hidden  from  view  by  the  overlapping 
glume.  Both  before  and  after  the  removal  of  the  chaff,  the  grain  is 
distinctly  spindle-shaped.  The  groove  on  the  ventral  side  of  the  cary- 
opsis and  the  depression  over  the  embryo  at  the  base  of  the  dorsal  side 
are  the  same  as  in  wheat  and  rye. 


BARLEY. 


81 


HISTOLOGY. 

Cross-sections  are  prepared  without  removal  of  the  glume  and  palet. 
Successive  treatments  of  the  section  with  potash,  dilute  acetic  acid,  and 
chlorzinc  iodine  solution,  or  Javelle  water  and  safranin,  aids  greatly  in 
differentiating  the  layers.  The  glume  and  palet  are  readily  separated 
after  boiling  with  water.  The  layers  of  these,  as  well  as  of  the  caryopsis, 
are  obtained  for  study  by  scraping,  and  may  be  cleared  and  stained  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  cross  sections. 

The  kernels  of  naked  barleys  are  distinguished  from  the  other  varie- 
ties not  only  by  the  absence  of  chaff  but  also  by  their  larger  size  and  the 
thicker  walls  of  the  epicarp  and  middle  layer. 


FIG.  44.  Barley  (Hordeumsativum).  Cross 
section  of  palet  and  outer  layers  of  fruit. 
P  palet;  FS  pericarp  and  spermoderm; 
endosperm  consists  of  al  aleurone  cells, 
and  E  starch  cells.  X 1 60.  (MOELLER.) 


FlG.  45.  Barley.  Palet  in  surface  view. 
Outer  epidermis  consists  of  elongated  wavy 
cells,  h  circular  cells  extended  into  short 
hairs,  and  5  twin  cells;  /  hypoderm  fibers. 

X  300.       (MOELLER.) 


The  Flowering  Glume  and  Palet  (Figs.  44,  P)  are  each  made  up 
of  four  layers. 

i.  The  Epidermal  Cells  (Fig.  45)  are  strongly  silicified  and  are  of 
three  forms.  First,  elongated  cells  with  wavy  side  walls;  second,  small 
circular  cells  extended  beyond  the  surface  in  the  form  of  conical  hairs 
(h)j  and  third,  crescent-shaped,  hemi-elliptical  or  circular  cells  occur- 


82 


GRAIN. 


ring  usually  in  pairs  (s).  Examined  in  water,  the  thickened,  convoluted 
double  walls  of  the  long  cells  appear  to  be  of  uniform  structure;  but  on 
treatment  with  alkali,  the  zigzag  middle  lamella  separating  adjoining 
cells  is  clearly  evident. 

2.  Hypoderm  (Fig.  44;  Fig.  45,  /).     One  to  three  layers  of  fibers  with 
thick,  porous  walls,  underlie  the  epidermis. 

3.  Spongy  Parenchyma  (Fig.  44;  Fig.  46,  p).    This  layer  consists  of 
thin-walled,   rectangular  cells,  either  isodiametric  or  slightly  elongated 
with  numerous  circular,  elliptical  or  irregular  intercellular  spaces. 


FlG.  46.  Barley.  Surface  view  of  p  spongy  paren- 
chyma of  palet,  ep  inner  epidermis  of  palet, 
and  /  epicarp.  X  300.  (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  47.  Barley.  Outer  epidermis 
with  hairs  from  margin  of  palet. 
(MOELLER.) 


4.  Inner  Epidermis  (Figs.  44  and  48).  Cross  sections  show  this 
layer  indistinctly;  surface  preparations,  however,  bring  out  the  thin- 
walled,  elongated  epidermal  cells,  stomata,  and  rather  short,  thin-walled, 
awl-shaped  hairs,  often  with  swollen  bases. 

Pericarp  (Fig.  44).  Little  detail  can  be  made  out  in  cross  sections 
mounted  in  water,  but  all  the  layers  are  evident  on  treatment  succes- 
sively with  potash,  dilute  acetic  acid  and  chlorzinc  iodine. 

i.  Epicarp  (Fig.  49).  The  cells  have  rather  thin,  porous  walls. 
On  the  body  of  the  grain  they  are  longitudinally  elongated;  at  the  apex 
more  nearly  isodiametric.  Vogl  notes  the  occurrence  of  stomata.  The 
numerous  hairs  which  clothe  the  apex  are  less  than  150  /*  long.  Some, 


BARLEY. 


like  wheat  hairs,  have  walls  thicker  than  the  lumen,  others,  like  rye  hairs, 
have  lumen  thicker  than  the  walls.  Usually  they  are  broadened  at  the 
base. 


FIG.  48.  Barley.  Inner  epidermis  with  h 
hairs  and  st  stomata,  from  middle  of 
palet.  Xsoo.  (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  49.     Barley.     Epicarp  with  hairs. 

(MOELLER.) 


2.  Mesocarp.     Several  rows  of  cells,  similar  to  those  of  the  epicarp, 
make  up  this  layer. 

3.  Cross  Cells  (Fig.  50,  qu).     Two  rows  of  cross  cells  with  non-porous 
walls   scarcely    2    /*   thick,   are   found  in  barley.     Most  of  the  cells  are 
60-100  fj.  long  and  10-25  V-  wide,  but  in  some  parts  they  are  nearly  iso- 
diametric.     In  both  layers  intercellular  spaces  frequently  occur  at  the 
angles,  and  to  some  extent  between  the  side  walls. 

4.  Tube  Cells  (Fig.   50,  sch)  are  not  numerous. 

The  Spermoderm  consists  of  two  layers  of  elongated  cells,  but  in 
both  layers  the  cells  are  longitudinally  extended,  not  crossed  as  in  wheat 
and  rye. 

1.  The  Outer  Layer  (Fig.  50,  ie)  is  composed  of   thin- walled  cells, 
which  can  be  clearly  seen  only  after   treatment  with   reagents.      Chlor- 
zinc  iodine  brings  out  the  bright  yellow  cuticle. 

2.  The  Inner  Layer  is  composed  of  thick- walled  cells.     Treatment 
with  potash  greatly  swells  the  walls,  and  subsequent  addition  of  chlor- 


84  GRAIN. 

zinc  iodine  colors  the  swollen  walls  blue  and  the  cuticle  on  the  inner  wall 
bright  yellow,  but  does  not  affect  the  middle  lamella. 

The  Perisperm  is  often  evident  in  section  after  soaking  in  dilute 
alkali,  but  is  rarely  seen  in  surface  view. 

Endosperm  (Fig.  44).  i.  The  Aleurone  Layer  (at)  differs  from  that 
of  all  other  cereals  in  that  it  is  two  to  four  cell-rows  thick.  In  cross 
section  the  cells  are  square  or  radially  extended,  but  in  surface  view, 


^e 


FIG.  50.      Barley.      Surface  view  of  qii  double  layer 
of  cross  cells,  sch  tube-cells,  and  ie  spermoderm. 

X  300.       (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  51.     Malt  Sprouts.     Epi- 
dermis    with     root     hairs. 

(MOELLER.) 


rounded  polygonal,  18-30  /*  in  diameter,  with  double  walls  4  /*  or  more 
thick. 

2.  Starch  Parenchyma  (E).  Barley  starch  (Fig.  52)  occurs  in  both 
large  and  small  grains  resembling  closely  those  of  wheat  and  rye,  though 
smaller.  The  large,  circular-  or  irregularly-shaped  grains  are  commonly 
20-30  /*  in  diameter  and  seldom  exceed  35/4.  As  aggregates  are  uncom- 
mon, the  smaller  grains  are  for  the  most  part  rounded  and  have  few  if 
any  angles.  Concentric  rings  and  hilum  are  often  evident. 


.      DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole  Barley  Products.  Malt,  the  most  important  barley  product, 
is  prepared  by  first  sprouting  the  grain,  thus  converting  the  starch  into 
maltose  through  the  action  of  the  diastase  ferment.  As  soon  as  this  con- 


BARLEY.  85 

version  is  complete,  the  action  of  the  diastase  is  stopped  by  heating,  and 
the  radicles,  known  as  "malt  sprouts,"  removed.  Malt  contains  all 
the  cellular  elements  of  the  grain  but  the  radicles. 

Roasted  Barley  and  roasted  malt  are  common  coffee  substitutes  and 
adulterants. 

Decorticated  Products.  Barley  Flour  is  prepared  for  bread-making 
in  some  countries,  and  finer  grades  are  used  as  food  for  infants  and  in- 
valids. 

Pearl  Barley  consists  of  the  kernels  denuded  of  the  chaff  and  bran 
coats,  and  rounded.  Tissues  of  the  pericarp  and  spermoderm  are  found 
in  the  groove. 

Barley  Farina  or  grits  is  a  decorticated  product  in  a  coarse  granular 
form. 

The  characteristic  elements  of  the  decorticated  products  are  the 
starch  granules  (Fig.  52),  which  are  smaller  than  those  of  wheat  or  rye, 


FIG.  52.     Barley  Starch.     Xsoo.     (MOELLER.) 


the  thick-  and  thin-walled  hairs  (Fig.  49),  and  occasional  fragments  of 
cross  cells  (Fig.  50,  qu). 

By-products.  Brewers1  Grains  is  the  moist  residue  after  extracting 
the  sugars  and  other  soluble  materials  from  malt.  Both  wet  and  dry 
brewers'  grains,  also  malt  sprouts,  are  utilized  as  cattle  foods.  The  glumes 
are  distinguished  macroscopically  from  oat  glumes  by  the  prominent 
ridges,  and  microscopically  by  the  rectangular  cells  of  the  spongy  paren- 
chyma (Fig.  46,  p).  The  thin-walled  hairs  of  the  inner  epidermis  (Fig. 
48),  the  two  layers  of  thin-walled  cross  cells  (Fig.  50,  qu),  and  the  two 
or  more  layers  of  aleurone  cells,  further  aid  in  diagnosis. 


86  GRAIN. 

Malt  Sprouts  are  the  vermiform  radicles  removed  in  preparing  malt. 
Dried  sprouts  are  used  as  a  food  for  cattle. 

The  central  cylinder,  consisting  of  incipient  vascular  elements,  ap- 
pears darker  than  the  outer  parenchyma  zone.  Numerous  typical  root 
hairs  arise  from  the  centers  of  epidermal  cells  (Fig.  51). 

Other  Cattle  Foods  containing  chaff,  bran,  germs  and  starchy  matter 
are  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  pearl  barley,  barley  grits,  etc. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Berg  (3);  Bohmer  (6,  23);  Hanausek,  T.  F. 
(10,  16,  17);  Harz  (18);  Hassall  (19);  Leach  (25);  Mace  (26);  Moeller  (29,  32); 
Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Schimper  (37);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin 
(42);  Vogl  (43,  45);  Wittmack  (10). 

Also  see  Bibliography  of  Wheat,  pp.  72-73. 
EMMERLING:  Ueber  eine  einfache  Unterscheidungsweise  von  Gersten- und  Haferspelzen. 

Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1898,  50,  i. 
HOLZNER:  Die  Bestandteile  und  Gewebeformen  des  bespelzten  Gerstenkornes.  Ztschr. 

gesamm.  Brauwesen.  1888,  473. 
ZOEBL:  Der  anatomische  Bail  der  Fruchtschale  der  Gerste  (Hordeum  distichum  L.). 

Verhandl.  Naturf.  Ver.  Briinn.  1889,  27,  i. 
ZOEBL  :  Beitrage  zur  Entwickelung  des  Gerstenkornes.    Allg.  Ztschr.  f .  Bierbrauerei  u. 

Malzfabrikation.  1889. 


MAIZE. 

The  fruit  of  maize  or  Indian  corn  (Zea  Mays  L.),  a  plant  of  American 
origin,  is  the  leading  cereal  crop  of  the  United  States,  the  production 
being  four  times  as  great  as  that  of  wheat,  and  is  also  a  valuable  grain 
in  Southern  Europe. 

By  far  the  larger  part  of  the  grain  is  used  as  food  for  cattle,  swine, 
and  poultry,  though  a  considerable  amount  is  consumed  by  the  human 
family  in  the  form  of  corn-bread,  mush,  hominy,  and  various  corn-starch 
products. 

The  varieties  of  maize  cultivated  in  America  are  usually  divided 
into  five  classes,  viz. :  dent  corn  (long  kernels  with  a  depression  in  the 
end),  flint  corn  (kernels  more  nearly  round,  at  the  end  smooth  and  con- 
vex), pop-corn  (small  kernels  used  for  parching  or  "popping"),  sweet 
corn  (cooked  green  as  a  vegetable),  and  the  less  important  soft  corn. 
The  numerous  varieties  belonging  to  each  class  vary  greatly  as  to 


MAIZE. 


the  number  of  rows  of  kernels  on  the  cob,  as  to  the  size,  form,  and 
color  of  the  kernels,  the  length  and  diameter  of  the  cob,  etc.  Only 
the  dent  and  flint  varieties  have  any  considerable  importance  as  grain 
plants. 

An  ear  of  maize  consists  of  a  thickened  rachis  or  spindle,  on  which 
are  inserted  the  closely-packed  kernels 
with  their  accompanying  chaff.     The 
spindle  and  chaff  together  form  the 
cob. 

The  kernels  of  a  maize  ear  spring 
from    the   cob    transversely    in    pairs 


S  S  §  S 


FIG.  53.  Maize  (Zea  Mays).  Cross  sec- 
tion of  ear  looking  toward  the  base. 
5  inner  surface  of  lower  empty  glume 
seen  behind  flowering  glumes  and 
palets;  s  outer  surface  of  upper 
empty  glume;  F  axis;  H  depression; 
B  bundle  zone;  M  pith.  Natural  size. 

(WlNTON.) 


FIG.  54.  Maize.  Radial  section  of  ear 
through  the  center  of  the  kernels.  6" 
and  5  empty  glumes;  s2  glume  and 
53  palet  of  perfect  flower;  S1  glume 
and  S2  palet  of  rudimentary  flower;  P 
spongy  lining  of  thick  glumes;  U  sur- 
face of  woody  zone  beyond  depression; 
H  depression ;  T  denser  portion  of 
woody  zone;  B  fibre-vascular  bundle; 
M  pith.  X  4-  (WiNTON.) 


and  longitudinally  in  double  rows.  The  arrangement  is  such  that  a  plane 
perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  cob  which  passes  through  the  bases  of 
the  pair  in  one  double  row  will  pass  alternately  between  and  through  the 
bases  of  the  pairs  in  the  other  double  rows.  Since  the  double  rows  of 
kernels  are  arranged  in  pairs,  it  follows  that  there  are  normally  an  even 
number  of  rows.  In  the  early  stages  of  ripening,  the  double  rows  are 
separated  by  marked  grooves;  but  as  the  kernels  approach  maturity 
they  become  so  crowded  that  the  arrangement  in  pairs  and  double 


88  GRAIN. 

rows  may  not  be  outwardly  apparent,  but  is  evident  on  cutting  into 
the  cob. 

Fig.  53  shows  a  cross-section  of  an  ear  so  cut  as  to  leave  three  of  the 
six  pairs  of  kernels  entire,  alternating  with  three  pairs  of  fruit  cups  in 
section;  Fig.  54  shows  a  longitudinal  section.  The  core  of  pith  (M) 
is  surrounded  by  a  zone  (B)  containing  numerous  nbro-vascular  bundles 
running  longitudinally  through  the  cob  and  this  in  turn  by  an  outer 
woody  zone  bearing  the  fruit  cups.  The  woody  regions  (T)  beneath 
the  double  rows  are  separated  from  each  other  by  thin  radial  partitions 
of  soft  -tissues  extending  from  the  central  pith  nearly  to  the  surface. 
These  partitions  can  be  traced  the  whole  length  of  the  cob  separating 
the  woody  matter  into  strips  which  are  arranged  about  the  pith  like  the 
staves  of  a  barrel.  The  strips  of  woody  matter  are  pierced  for  the 
passage  of  the  tissues  connecting  the  kernels  with  the  zone  of  vascular 
bundles. 

On  the  surface  of  the  woody  zone  between  the  pairs  of  fruit  cups  is 
a  transverse  depression  (H)  clothed  with  hairs,  which  is  more  or  less 
pronounced  according  to  the  dryness  of  the  cob.  The  woody  matter 
(T)  about  these  depressions  is  of  a  darker  color  than  in  other  parts,  owing 
to  its  greater  density.  The  cups  in  which  the  kernels  rest  are  formed 
by  six  envelopes,  viz. :  two  empty  glumes  (S  and  s),  the  glume  (s2)  and 
palet  (S3)  of  the  perfect  flower,  and  the  glume  (S1)  and  palet  (S2)  belong- 
ing originally  to  a  rudimentary  blossom.  Both  of  the  empty  glumes  are 
thick  and  horny  with  linings  of  spongy  tissues  (P)  and  thin  ends  re- 
sembling tissue  paper.  The  other  enveloping  parts  are  entirely  of  this 
papery  texture.  Hairs  occur  at  the  bases  of  the  thick  glumes,  espe- 
cially at  their  points  of  juncture,  and  also  on  the  thin  ends.  The  more 
or  less  flattened  kernels  are  usually  longer  than  broad  in  the  dent  va- 
rieties, but  broader  than  long  in  the  flint  varieties.  The  ventral  side 
(the  side  nearest  the  apex  of  the  cob)  is  smooth  and  flat,  while  the  dorsal 
side  has  a  broad  groove  extending  from  the  base  of  the  kernel  (where 
it  is  broadest  and  deepest)  nearly  to  the  apex.  Beneath  this  groove  is 
the  unusually  large  germ  (Fig.  62). 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spindle,  i.  The  Epidermis  overlying  the  woody  zone  in  the  depres- 
sions (Figs.  53  and  54,  H)  is  made  up  of  thin-walled  cells  of  wavy  out- 
line arranged  more  or  less  distinctly  in  rows  (Fig.  55,  ep).  The  hairs 


MAIZE. 


89 


(H,  h)  which  spring  from  this  epidermis  are,  in  part,  long,  pointed,  single- 
celled)  with  walls  from  one-third  to  one-sixth  the  thickness  of  the  cavity, 


H 


FIG.  57.  FIG.  56. 

FIG.  55.  Maize  Cob.  Surface  view  of  ep  epidermis  and  hy  hypoderm  in  the  depression 
(If,  Figs.  53  and  54).  H  single-celled  pointed  hair;  h  blunt  three-celled  hair.  Xi6o. 

(WlNTON.) 

FIG.  56.  Maize  Cob.  Radial  section  through  depression  (H,  Figs.  53  and  54),  showing 
epidermis  with  hairs,  elongated  and  isodiametric  sclerenchyma  cells,  fibro- vascular 
bundle  and  parenchyma  of  pith.  X32.  (WlNTON.) 

FIG.  57.  Maize  Cob.  Transverse  section  through  the  elongated  sclerenchyma  of  the 
woody  zone.  X 160.  (WlNTON.) 

and,  in  part,  blunt,  two  or  more  celled,  with  exceedingly  thin  walls. 

In  the  region  between  the  depressions  and  the  base  of  the  upper  thick 


9o 


GRAIN. 


glume  (Fig.  54,  Z7),  the  epidermis  is  like  that  of  the  horny  portion  of 
the  empty  glumes  (Fig.  59). 

2.  Woody  Zone.  The  sclerenchyma  cells  of  the  woody  zone  vary 
greatly,  according  to  their  location,  in  form,  size,  and  in  the  thickness  of 
the  walls.  The  first  layer  beneath  the  epidermis  in  the  depressions,  as 


FlG.  58.  Maize  Cob.  Cross  section  of  upper  thick  glume,  ep  epidermis  with  thick -walled, 
porous  cells  and  thin-walled  non -porous  cells;  st  isodiametric  cells;  //  longitudinally 
elongated  sclerenchyma  cells  and  fibro-vascular  bundle;  p  parenchyma  with  compressed 
inner  layers.  Xi6o.  (WiNTON.) 

seen  in  the  surface  view  (Fig.  55,  hy),  consists  of  elongated  cells  with 
porous  walls  usually  narrower  than  the  lumen.  The  side  walls  are  much 
thicker  than  those  at  the  ends. 

The  cells  of  several  succeeding  layers  are  long  and  fibrous  with  narrow 
lumen,  and  extend  in  curves  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  depressions 
(Fig.  56). 

Proceeding  inward  from  these  layers,  the  cells  gradually  diminish  in 


MAIZE. 


length  and  increase  in  width  until  they  are  finally  round  or  oval.  At 
first  this  change  in  shape  is  accompanied  by  a  thickening  of  the  cell- 
wall;  but  further  inward  the  walls  begin  to  diminish  in  thickness  and 
continue  to  diminish  until  the  cells  lose  the  character  of  sclerenchyma. 
All  the  transitional  forms  from  woody  fiber  to  the  thin  parenchyma  of 
the  pith  are  noticeable. 

"  II 


.ep 


FIG.  59.  Maize  Cob.  Outer  epider- 
mis of  an  empty  glume,  consisting 
of  porous  and  n  on -porous  cells  and 
base  of  hair.  X  300.  (WiNTON.) 


FIG.  60.  Maize.  Membranous  glume  in 
surface  view,  ep  outer  epidermis  with 
H  long  one-celled  hair,  and  h  short, 
blunt  1-3  celled  hairs;  *  hair  scar;  p 
inner  epidermis.  X 160.  (MOELLER.) 


In  cross-sections  of  the  cob  the  thick  cell-walls  show  not  only  numer- 
ous pores,  but  beautiful  concentric  markings   (Fig.   57). 

3.  Bundle  Zone.    The    fibro-vascular    bundles    passing    through    the 
soft  tissue  between  the  woody  zone  and  the  pith  have  the  characteristics 
peculiar  to  endogenous  plants.     In  longitudinal  sections,  spiral,  annular, 
scalariform,  and  pitted  vessels  and  thin-walled  elongated  sclerenchyma 
cells  are  conspicuous  (Fig.  56). 

4.  The  Pith  consists  entirely  of  parenchyma  with  thin  cell- walls  which, 
under  high  power,  are  seen  to  be  pierced  by  pores. 


92 


GRAIN. 


FIG.  61.     Maize  Cob. 
parts.     X  1 60. 


Empty  Glumes.     Each  of  the  thick  glumes  (Fig.  54,  S,  s)  is  composed 

of  a  horny  lower  portion  and  a  thin  papery  tissue  at  the  end. 

The  structure  of  the  horny  portion 
appears  in  cross  section  in  Fig.  58. 
The  epidermis  (Fig.  59)  is  composed 
of  two  forms  of  cells,  one  with  thick 
porous  walls,  the  other  with  thinner 
walls  free  from  pores.  Both  forms 
are  commonly  rounded-rectangular, 
either  isodiametric  or  somewhat  elon- 
gated. The  non-porous  cells  are  some- 
times crescent-shaped,  and  often  occur 

in  pairs  at  more  or  less  regular  intervals,  showing  that  they  are  analogous 

to  the  twin  cells  of  other  cereals.     They  are  usually  smaller  than  those 

with  pores,  although  in  some   parts   the  difference   in    size   is    not  so 

marked.     In  addition  to  these  two  forms 

of  cells,  hairs  and  well-developed  sto- 

mata  also  occur  in  parts.     The  structure 

of  the  papery  ends  is  like  that  of  the 

thin  glumes  and  palets. 

2.  Sclerenchyma  (Fig.  58,  st  and  //). 

The  sclerenchyma  of  the  glumes  extends 

from  the  epidermis  nearly  to  the  inner 

surface.    In  the  first  few  layers,  the  cells 

are  large,  loosely  arranged,  more  or  less 

isodiametric,  and  have  walls  of  mod- 
erate   thickness;    but    further    inward 

the   cells    are   smaller,   thicker   walled 

and  are  longitudinally  much  elongated. 

The  fibro-vascular  bundles  run  among    Fl^j  ^'it 


these  elongated   cells  and    parallel    to 
them. 

3.  Parenchyma   (p).      Toward    the 
inner  surface  the  cell- walls  diminish  in 
thickness  and  the  sclerenchyma  passes 

finally  into  parenchyma.     The  parenchyma  cells  of  the  inner  layers  are 
indistinct  and  much  compressed. 

4.  The  Inner  Epidermis  is  not  evident. 

Flowering  Glumes  and  Palets   (Fig.  60).     i.   The  Outer  Epidermis 


Maize.  Longitudinal  section 
e  pericarp;  n  remains  of 
stigma;  fs  base  of  kernel;  eg  horny 
endosperm;  ew  floury  endosperm;  sc 
and  ss  scutellum  of  embryo;  e  epithe- 
lium of  scutellum;.  k  plumule;  w  (be- 
low) primary  root;'  ivs  root  sheath; 
w  (above)  secondary  root;  st  stem. 
X6.  (SACHS.) 


MAIZE. 


93 


(ep)  consists  of  cells  with  thin  wavy  walls  and  thin-walled  unicellular 
and  multicellular  hairs. 

2.  The  Inner  Epidermis  (p)  is  of  elongated  cells. 


ep 


i m 


FIG.  63.  Maize.  Cross  section  of  bran  coats  and  outer  endosperm  of  fruit.  Pericarp 
consists  of  ep  epicarp,  m  mesocarp,  p  spongy  parenchyma  and  sch  tube  cells;  h  spermo- 
derm;  is  perisperm;  endosperm  consists  of  K  aleurone  cells  and  E  starch  cells.  X 160. 

(MOELLER.) 

Pericarp  (Figs.  63  and  64).  After  soaking  the  grain  for  a  day  or  two 
in  water,  a  skin,  having  the  same  color  as  the  grain  and  consisting  of 
the  epicarp,  mesocarp,  and  spongy  parenchyma,  may  be  readily  sepa- 


sch/  j)          V*-  is 

FIG.  64.     Maize.     Bran  coats  in  surface  view,     m  mesocarp;    sch  tube  cells;    p  spongy 
parenchyma;   is  perisperm;   K  aleurone  layer.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

rated.     If  yellow  or  white,  this  skin  turns  deep  yellow  with  alkali;    if 
red,  it  turns  green. 

i.  The  Epicarp  (ep)  consists  of  porous-walled,  elongated  cells  much 
like  the  corresponding  layer  of  wheat,  except  that  the  walls  are  thicker. 
A  thin  cuticle  covers  the  exposed  surface. 


94  GRAIN. 

2.  Mesocarp  (m).     Six  or  more  layers  of  cells  similar  to   those  of 
the  epicarp,  but  with  thicker  walls,  constitute  the  mesocarp,  or  middle 
layer.     In  the  outer  layers  these  cells  are  600  <JL  or  more  long  and  20-40  a 
broad.     In  the  inner  layers,  the  cells  are  broader,  flatter,  and  thinner 
walled,  grading  into  those  of  the  next  layer. 

3.  Spongy  Parenchyma  (p).     Instead  of  a  close  layer  of  cross  cells, 
such  as  occur  in  wheat,  rye  and  barley,  or  isolated  vermiform  cells,  as  in 
rice  and  sorghum,  *we  find  in  maize  a  spongy  parenchyma  made  up  of 
branching   and   anastomosing   cells   with   narrow,   radiating    arms,   and 
large  intercellular  spaces.     In  most  parts  the  transversely  elongated  arms 
occur  in  the  greatest  numbers,  indicating  the  relation  with  the  vermiform 
cross  cells  of  rice  and  sorghum. 

4.  Tube  cells  (sch).     In  order  to  study  the  tube  cells,  also  the  spermo- 
derm  and  perisperm,  a  whole  kernel  should  first  be  soaked  in  water, 
stripped  of  the  outer  pericarp,  as  already  described,  and  the  thick  inner 
skin  removed.     This  skin  should  then  be  boiled  in  ij  per  cent  alkali, 
washed  in  dilute  acetic  acid,  picked  apart  with  needles,  and  the  frag- 
ments mouuted  in  chlorzinc  iodine. 

Spermoderm  (is).  The  so-called  brown  membrane,  although  ex- 
ceedingly thin,  is  readily  seen  in  cross-section.  It  becomes  intensely 
yellow  on  treatment  with  alkalies,  without  swelling  perceptibly.  A 
single  layer  of  delicate  elongated  cells  and  traces  of  a  second  are  dis- 
closed by  the  method  described  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 

Perisperm  (//).  Beneath  the  spermoderm  is  still  another  layer  which, 
although  seen  in  cross-section  only  under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances, is  brought  out  clearly  in  surface  view  by  the  method  above  de- 
scribed, the  swollen  walls  remaining  colorless,  the  finely  granular  con- 
tents, however,  being  stained  deep  blue. 

Endosperm  (Figs.  62,  63  and  64).  i.  The  Aleurone  Layer  (K)  con- 
sists, for  the  most  part,  of  a  single  cell  layer,  although  some  of  the  cells 
are  divided  by  tangential  partitions.  The  cells  are  30-40  /*  in  diameter, 
the  double  walls  6-9  /*  thick. 

2.  Starch  Parenchyma  (E).  Immediately  adjoining  the  aleurone 
layer,  the  cells  are  small  and  flattened;  further  inward,  large  and  iso- 
diametric.  In  the  outer  horny  portion  of  the  kernel,  nearly  all  the  starch 
grains  (Fig.  65)  are  sharply  polygonal,  only  a  few  being  rounded;  while 
in  the  inner  mealy  portion  the  reverse  is  true,  nearly  all  the  grains  being 
rounded.  A  distinct  hilum,  often  with  radiating  clefts,  is  always  evident, 
at  least  in  the  larger  grains.  Most  of  the  grains  are  15-35  /*.  Compound 


MAIZE.  95 

forms  do  not  occur.  T.  F.  Hanausek  has  aptly  described  the  starch 
grains  of  maize  as  standing  out  in  bold  relief,  in  striking  contrast  with 
the  flat  grains  of  many  starches.  Examined  with  crossed  Nicols,  maize 
starch  displays  very  distinct  crosses. 

The  Embryo  (Fig.  62)  contains  oil  and  proteids,  but  no  starch. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  numerous  products  of  maize  serve  not  only  as  foods  for  man 
and  beast,  but  also  frequently  as  adulterants. 


FIG.  65.     Maize  Starch.     Xsoo.     (MOELLER.) 


Whole  Maize  Products.  Maize  Meal.  Coarsely  ground  maize  or 
coarse  corn-meal  is  one  of  the  principal  forms  in  which  this  cereal  is 
fed  to  cattle,  swine,  and  horses. 

Cracked  Corn  is  a  coarser  product  used  as  a  poultry  food. 

From  these  products  lumps  of  horny  and  floury  endosperm  and 
fragments  of  the  bran  and  germ  may  be  picked  out  under  the  simple 
microscope.  The  large  polygonal  starch  grains  (Fig.  65)  differ  from 
those  of  all  other  economic  plants  but  sorghum.  On  treatment  with 
alkali,  yellow  or  white  fragments  of  the  skin  become  a  deep  golden- 
yellow  and  red  fragments  green.  The  pericarp  is  further  characterized 
by  the  thick  porous  walls  of  the  epicarp  and  mesocarp  Fig.  (64,  m),  and 
the  star-shaped  or  transversely  elongated  cells  of  the  spongy  parenchyma 
(p).  The  tube  cells  (sch)  are  much  like  those  of  rice,  oats,  and 
sorghum. 

Corn  and  Cob  Meal,  often  known  as  "  cob-meal,  "  consists  of  the  kernels 
ground  with  the  cob.  The  characteristics  of  the  cob  are  noted  below. 

Flour  and  Other  Decorticated  Products.    Maize  Flour  is  an  ingre- 


9  6  GRAIN. 

dient  of  some  griddle-cake  flours  and  various  other  preparations.  It  is 
also  an  adulterant  of  wheat  flour. 

Maize  Meal,  more  or  less  finely  ground  and  freed  from  bran,  is  used 
for  making  corn  bread  ("Johnny  cake")  and  mush  (" hasty  pudding"). 

Hominy,  a  coarser  product  made  from  white  maize,  is  a  well-known 
breakfast  cereal.  These  and  some  other  products  consist  largely  of 
starchy  matter. 

"Corn  Crisp"  is  one  of  several  cooked  and  flaked  preparations,  with 
distorted  starch  grains. 

Corn  Starch  (p.  651).     .  • 

By-products.  Gluten  Meal  and  Gluten  Feed  are  dried  by-products 
from  the  manufacture  of  glucose.  The  former  is  a  concentrated  feed, 
consisting  largely  of  hard,  irregularly  rounded,  yellow  lumps,  the  only 
marked  microscopic  elements  being  fragments  of  bran.  Gluten  feed 
contains  more  bran  than  does  the  meal.  The  starch  grains  are  distorted 
in  both  products. 

Hominy  Feed  and  Starch  Feed,  by-products  containing  starchy  matter 
and  bran,  are  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  hominy  and  starch. 

Maize  Cake.  The  germs  of  maize  yield,  on  pressing,  maize  oil. 
Ground  germ  cake  is  sold  under  the  name  "germ  oil  meal."  It  contains 
no  starch. 

Maize  Bran,  although  much  inferior  to  wheat  bran,  is  frequently 
added,  to  the  latter  as  an  adulterant,  in  which  case  it  is  detected  by  the 
cells  of  the  epicarp,  mesocarp,  and  spongy  parenchyma  (Fig.  64). 

Maize  Cobs,  because  of  their  mechanical  condition  and  low  content 
of  nutrients,  have  little  value  as  cattle  food.  Their  legitimate  use  is  as 
fuel  and  for  making  smo king- pipes ;  the  ground  cobs  are,  however,  too 
often  mixed  with  wheat  or  rye  bran  as  an  adulterant. 

In  bran,  thus  adulterated,  a  practiced  eye,  even  without  the  aid  of  a 
lens,  will  usually  find  fragments  of  the  thin  glumes  and  palets,  also  of  the 
thick  horny  glumes  and  woody  zone.  Lindsey  notes  that  by  chewing  the 
bran  the  hard  woody  fragments  may  often  be  detected.  The  thin  glumes 
and  palets  (Fig.  60)  can  be  examined  directly  under  the  microscope, 
noting  the  color  on  addition  of  alkali;  but  pieces  of  the  thick  glumes  and 
the  woody  zone  require  special  preparation.  The  characteristic  epidermal 
cells  (Fig.  59)  of  the  empty  glumes  are  obtained  for  study  by  warming  with 
dilute  alkali  and  scraping  with  a  scalpel.  For  the  identification  of  other 
tissues,  sections  should  be  cut  with  a  razor  or  the  elements  isolated  by  treat- 
ment with  a  macerating  solution.  Stone  cells  (Fig.  57),  such  as  make  up 


MAIZE.    BROOM   CORN.  97 

the  woody  zone  of  the  cob  and  the  interior  of  the  thick  glume,  will  be  at  once 
recognized  as  foreign  to  bran;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  fibro- 
vascular  bundles  and  the  parenchyma  of  the  pith.  The  compound  hairs 
with  thin  walls,  and  sharp-pointed  single-celled  hairs  with  cavity  five  to 
six  times  the  thickness  of  the  walls,  are  readily  distinguished  from  those 
of  wheat  or  rye  bran.  Where  the  percentage  of  adulteration  is  large, 
chemical  analysis  will  disclose  a  deficiency  of  nitrogen,  fat,  and  starch 
and  an  excess  of  fiber,  thus  confirming  the  results  of  the  microscopic  eqami- 
nation. 

Usually  the  thin  glumes  (Fig.  60)  with  sinuous  walls  and  hairs,  also 
the  porous  and  non-porous  epidermal  cells  (Fig.  59)  of  the  thick  glumes, 
suffice  for  identification. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674;  Berg  (3);  Bohmer  (6,  23);  Hanausek,  T.  F. 
(16);  Harz(i8);  Hassall(i9);  Leach  (25);  Mace  (26);  Moeller(29);  Planchon  et  Col- 
lin  (34);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (43,  45);  Wittmack 
do). 

Also  see  Bibliography  of  Wheat,  pp.  72-73. 

BERSCH:  Mais  und  Maisabfalle.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1895,  46,  85. 
HARSHBERCER:   Maize,  a  Botanical  and  Economic  Study.     Contrb.  Bot.  Lab.  Univ. 

Pennsylvania  I,  1893,  75. 

LINZ:  Beitrage  zur  Physiologic  der  Keimung  von  Zea  Mais  L.  Dissert.  Marburg,  1896. 
PAMMEL:   Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Corn  Caryopsis.     Iowa  Acad.  Sci.  1897,  5,  i. 
WHITE:  Note  on  the  Use  of  Maize  as  an  Adulterant.     Analyst,  1895,  20,  30. 
WINTON:  Die  Anatomic  des  Maiskolbens  mit  besonderer  Riicksicht  auf  den  Nachweis 

von  Kolbenmehl  als  Verfalschungsmittel  der  Weizen-  und  Roggenkleie.     Oesterr. 

Chem.-Ztg.  1900,  3,  N.  F.,  345.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1900,  186. 

BROOM  CORN. 

A  number  of  plants  formerly  regarded  as  separate  species  of  the 
genus  Sorghum  (S.  saccharatum  Pers.,  S.  vulgar e  Pers.,  S.  Caffrorum 
Beauv.,  S.  nigrum  Roem.  et  Schult.,  S.  cernuum  Willd.)  are  now  classed 
as  varieties  of  a  single  species  (Andropogon  Sorghum  Brot.),  the  extraor- 
dinary differences  in  their  inflorescence  and  fruit  being  the  result  of 
hybridization  and  selection  extending  through  centuries.  These  dif- 
ferences are  especially  marked,  because  some  of  the  varieties  have  been 
developed  for  grain,  others  for  brush,  and  still  others  for  sugar;  whereas 
in  the  case  of  other  cereals  the  production  of  grain  has  been  chiefly  con- 
sidered. 


98  GRAIN. 

Broom  corn  (Andropogon  Sorghum  var.  technicus  Koern.),  one  of 
the  most  important  varieties,  is  grown  in  large  quantities  in  Illinois, 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  some  other  states  of  the  United  States,  and  to 
a  much  lesser  extent  in  Spain,  Italy,  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  Al- 
though the  grain  is  not  fully  ripe  when  the  brush  is  in  its  best  condition, 
still  it  is  utilized  to  some  extent  as  food  for  cattle  and  poultry,  and  some- 
times is  mixed  with  wheat  bran  as  an  adulterant. 

A  fertile  spikelet  (Fig.  66)  and  one  or  two  staminate  or  rudimentary 
spikelets  (r)  are  borne  at  each  joint  of  the  panicle.  The  fertile  spike- 


FIG.  66.  Broom  Corn  (Andropogon  Sorghum  var.  technicus).  Fruit  with  chaff,  r  two 
staminate  spikelets;  g\  lower  empty  glume;  g2  upper  empty  glume;  gs  glume  of  rudi- 
mentary flower;  gf  flowering  glume  with  awn;  p  palet;  c  caryopsis  or  fruit.  X4' 

(WlNTON.) 

let  consists  of  two  shining,  thick,  empty  glumes  (g\  and  #2)  and  three 
membranous,  hairy  envelopes,  constituting  the  glume  (gf)  and  small 
palet  (p)  of  the  perfect  flower,  and  the  glume  (#3)  of  a  rudimentary  flower. 
A  geniculate  upwardly  barbed  awn,  5-7  mm.  long,  is  borne  on  the  glume 
of  the  perfect  flower;  but  this  awn,  being  readily  detached  by  thresh- 
ing, is  seldom  found  in  the  grain  on  the  market.  The  grain  or  cary- 
opsis is  about  5  mm.  long  and  from  2-3  mm.  wide,  tapering  to  a 
blunt  point  at  both  ends.  It  varies  in  color  from  yellow-brown  to 
red-brown. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Both  Empty  Glumes  (Fig.  66,  gi  and  #2)  are  from  4  to  6  mm.  long, 
equalling  and '  closely  enveloping  the  fruit.  They  vary  in  color  from 
yellow-brown  to  red-brown.  The  soft  hairs,  which  nearly  cover  the  outer 
surface,  are  loosely  attached  and  most  of  them  are  removed  during  the 
threshing  and  cleaning  of  the  seed,  leaving  the  glumes  smooth  and 
shining. 


BROOM  CORN. 


99 


i.  The  Outer  Epidermis  (Figs.   67  and  68,  aep)  consists  of  thick- 
walled  sclerenchyma  cells  several  times  as  long  as  broad,  with  wavy  con- 


FIG.  67. 


FIG.  68. 


FlG.  67.  Broom  Corn.  Transverse  section  of  empty  glume  and  outer  layers  of  fruit.  $p 
empty  glume  consists  of  aep  outer  epidermis,  /  fiber  layer,  p  spongy  parenchyma  with 
g  bundle,  and  iep  inner  epidermis  with  sto  stoma;  Fs  pericarp  consists  of  ep  epicarp  with 
c  cuticle,  hy  hypoderm,  mes  starchy  mesocarp,  q  cross  cells  and  sch  tube  cells;  N  peri- 
sperm  with  s  swollen  inner  walls;  E  endosperm,  consists  of  al  aleurone  layer  and  the 
starch  cells  with  st  starch  grains  and  a  proteid  network.  X  160.  (WINTON.) 

FIG.  68.  Broom  Corn,  aep  outer  epidermis  and  /  fiber  of  an  empty  glume  in  surface  view. 
X  300.  (WINTON.) 

tour,  interspersed  here  and  there  with  isodiametric  hair-scars,  each  ac- 
companied by  a  crescent-shaped  cell  with  granular  contents.  The  hairs, 
which  are  almost  invariably  detached  in  preparing  the  mount,  if  not  in 
cleaning  the  seed,  are  often  i.o  mm.  long  and  12  p.  broad  in. the  middle, 
but  tapering  towards  both  ends.  Invariably  the  lumen  is  much  broader 
than  the  walls. 

2.  The  Hypoderm  Fibers  (Figs.  67  and  68,  /),  of  which  there  are 
several  layers,  have  thick  walls  and  narrow  cavities. 

3.  Spongy  Parenchyma  (Figs.  67  and  69,  p).     As  seen  in  surface  view, 
the  cells  of  this  layer  are  more  or  less  rectangular  with  circular  inter- 
cellular spaces,  and  resemble  those  of  rice  and  barley  glumes. 

4.  Inner  Epidermis  (Figs.  67  and  69,  iep).     In  cross-section  this  layer 
is  not  readily  studied,  since  the  radial  walls  are  usually  collapsed;    but 
in  surface  preparations,  the  large  elongated  cells,  often  150  //  long  and 
50  jj.  wide,  interspersed  with  stomata  and  hairs,  are  clearly  displayed. 


100 


GRAIN. 


Flowering  Glumes  and  Palet.  i.  Outer  Epidermis  (Fig.  70,  aep). 
In  general  form  the  cells  are  similar  to  those  of  the  outer  epidermis  of 
the  empty  glumes,  but  are  narrower  and  much  thinner  walled.  The 
marginal  hairs  (h)  are  long  (often  500  /*),  single-celled,  and  pointed; 


-iep. 


-sto. 


FIG.   69.     Broom  Corn.      Inner    layers    of  FIG.  70.   Broom  Corn.    Glume 

empty  glume  in  surface  view  showing  p  of  rudimentary  flower  (Fig. 

spongy    parenchyma   and  iep  inner  epi-  66,  £3)  in  surface  view,     aep 

dermis    with    sto    stoma    and    h    hair.  outer  epidermis  with  h  one- 

Xsoo.     (WiNTON.)  celled    hair    and    h1    two- 

celled  hair;    iep  inner  epi- 
dermis.    X  300.     (WiNTON.) 

but  on  the  surface,  shorter  hairs  (h1),  with  two  or  three  joints  and  blunt 
ends,  also  occur.  Both  of  these  forms  have  exceedingly  thin  walls. 

2.  The  Inner  Epidermis  (iep)  is  distinguished  from  the  outer  by  the 
straight  walls,  and  almost  entire  absence  of  hairs. 

Pericarp,  i.  Epicarp  (Figs.  67  and  71,  ep).  The  cells  are  longi- 
tudinally extended  and  have  thick,  wavy  side  walls,  with  more  or,  less 
distinct  pores.  Hassack  has  noted  that  the  cuticle  (c)  is  of  uneven  thick- 
ness, due  to  minute  granules  or  crystals,  which  may  be  seen  either  in 
section  or  surface  view. 

2.  The  Hypoderm  (hy)  consists  of  from  one  to  three  layers  of  cells, 
with  walls  somewhat  thinner  than  those  of  the  epidermis. 


BROOM  CORN. 


101 


3.  Starchy  Mesocarp  (mes).  Several  layers  of  thin- walled  parenchyma 
cells,  filled  usually  with  small  round  or  rounded  polygonal  starch  grains, 
seldom  over  6  /i  in  diameter,  make  up  this  coat.  The  starch  appears 
during  the  early  stages  of  growth  and  persists  until  the  fruit  nearly  or 
quite  reaches  full  maturity.  As  the  caryopsis,  even  when  nearly  ma- 
ture, is  intensely  green  owing  to  chlorophyl  grains  in  the  outermost  layers 
of  the  mesocarp,  it  may  be  inferred  that  this  starch  is  a  direct  product 
of  assimilation  in  the  pericarp.  The  presence  or  absence  of  a  starchy 
mesocarp  in  the  grain  at  the  time  of  harvest  is  not  a  definite  varietal  pecu- 


al. 


FIG.  71.     Broom  Corn.     Bran  layers  in  surface  view,      ep  epicarp;    hy  hypoderm;    mes 
starchy  mesocarp;  q  cross  cells;  sch  tube  cells;  N  perisperm;  al  aleurone  cells.     X  160. 

(WlNTON.) 

liarity,  but  is  dependent  on  the  ripeness  of  the  fruit  or  other  conditions. 
Some  kernels  of  the  same  variety  may  possess  it,  while  others  show  only 
empty,  obliterated  cells.  Whether  or  not  the  starch  is  present  in  a  given 
seed  may  often  be  determined  by  careful  scraping  and  observation  with 
the  naked  eye. 

4.  Cross  Cells  (q).     These  cells  are  usually  long  and  narrow,  being 
distinguished  from  the  tube  cells  only  by  their  transverse  arrangement. 
Near  the  extremities  of  the  seed  they  are,  however,  shorter  and  of  more 
irregular  shape. 

5.  Tube  Cells  (sch).    The  cells  of  this  layer  lie  at  right  angles  to  the 
cross  cells.     They  are  about  5  p  wide  and  often  reach  a  length  of  200  /*. 

Perisperm  (N).  This  layer  is  frequently  50  ft  thick.  The,  outer  radial 
walls  are  thin,  but  the  inner  wall  (s)  is  greatly  swollen.  In  surface  view 
the  large  cells  are  conspicuous,  not  only  because  of  their  size,  but  because 
of  their  yellow  or  brown  color. 


102  GRAIN. 

Endosperm,  i.  Aleurone  Layer  (al).  The  individual  cells  of  this 
layer  are  characterized  by  their  great  variation  in  size  and  form. 

2.  Starch  Parenchyma  (s£).  In  the  outer  layers  the  starch  grains, 
if  present,  are  much  smaller  than  in  the  interior  of  the  seed,  where  they 
sometimes  reach  a  diameter  of  30  /*.  They  are  usually  sharply  polygonal, 
with  a  distinct  hilum  and  radiating  fissures.  The  starch  is  surrounded 
by  small  protein  granules,  forming  a  network  (a)  which  is  especially 
evident  after  removing  the  starch  by  reagents.  In  some  specimens, 
one  or  more  of  the  outer  cell  layers  are  filled  with  these  protein  granules 
to  the  complete  exclusion  of  the  starch. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  starch  grains  of  broom  corn  and  other  sorghum  fruits  are  practi- 
cally the  same,  both  in  form  and  size,  as  those  of  maize,  although  radically 
different  from  those  of  all  other  cereals.  Meyer  observed  that  the  grains 
of  some  varieties  of  sorghum  take  on  a  reddish  color,  not  a  blue,  with 
iodine  solution,  but  Mitlacher  found  that  this  reaction  takes  place  only 
after  first  soaking  the  grain  in  water.  As  a  means  of  distinguishing 
sorghum  starch  from  maize  starch,  this  test  is  of  little  value,  and  it  is  neces- 
sary to  depend  on  the  differences  in  structure  of  other  histological  elements 

The  epidermis  (Fig.  68)  of  the  glumes  and  the  perisperm  (Fig.  71,  N) 
of  both  broom  corn  and  sugar  sorghum  are  radically  unlike  any  tissues 
found  in  maize.  Especially  characteristic  are  the  cells  of  the  perisperm, 
which  may  be  readily  found  without  treatment  with  reagents,  whereas  in 
other  cereals  they  can  seldom  be  seen  except  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions. 

After  treatment  with  alkali,  the  epidermis  (Fig.  68,  aep)  of  the  empty 
glumes  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  corresponding  tissues  of 
maize  by  the  longer  cells,  their  zigzag  contour  and  the  crescent-shaped 
cells  which  almost  invariably  accompany  the  hair-scars.  The  thin  glumes 
(Fig.  70)  resemble  those  of  maize  (Fig.  60),  but  the  epidermal  cells  are 
longer,  narrower  and  less  irregular  in  form. 

The  tube  cells  of  the  two  cereals  are  much  the  same,  and  the  cross 
ceils  of  sorghum  are  often  not  distinguishable  from  the  spongy  parenchyma 
cells  of  maize.  Of  the  other  tissues,  the  epicarp  is  not  always  character- 
istic, and  the  starchy  mesocarp  is  difficult  to  find  in  the  ground  product. 

The  elongated  cells  of  the  outer  epidermis  of  the  thick  glumes  in 
sorghum  and  barley  are  much  alike,  but  the  short  conical  hairs,  often 


BROOM  CORN.  SUGAR  SORGHUM.  103 

unaccompanied  «by  crescent-shaped  cells,  are  characteristic  of  barley. 
Sorghum  and  oat  glumes  are  not  so  readily  distinguished  by  the  epidermal 
tissues ;  but  in  sorghum  the  cells  of  the  spongy  parenchyma  are,  like  those 
of  barley,  irregularly  rectangular  with  round  intercellular  spaces,  whereas 
in  oats  they  are  star-shaped. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  general  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Hassall  (19). 
BROWN:  On  Another  New  Pepper  Adulterant.     Analyst.  1887,  12,  89. 
HARZ:  Landw.  Samenkunde.     Berlin,  1885,  2,  1249. 
HASSACK:  Anatomic  der  Sorghum-Friichte.     Mitth.  aus  dem  Labor,  f.  Waarenk.  an 

der  Wiener  Handels-Akad.  1887,  '113. 
MITLACHER:  Ueber  einige  exotische  Gramineenfriichte,  die  zur  menschlichen  Nahrung 

dienen.     Ztschr.  allg.  osterr.  Apoth.-Ver.  1901,  813,  831,  856,  875,  899  u.  928. 
WINTON:  Anatomic  der  Kultur-Varietaten  der  Hirse.    Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm. 

WSi  6>  337-     Conn.  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.  Rep.  1902,  326. 

SUGAR   SORGHUM. 

Sugar  sorghum  (Andropogan  Sorghum  var.  saccharatus  Koern.)  has 
been  cultivated  for  many  years  in  China  and  Africa  and  for  the  past  half 
century  in  America.  At  one  time  it  gave  promise  of  being  the  chief  sugar 
plant  of  the  United  States,  but  has  since  largely  given  place  to  the  sugar 
beet.  It  is  cut  for  sugar  before  the  seeds  reach  maturity,  but  the  latter 
still  have  some  value  as  food  for  stock.  When  grown  to  maturity  the  seed 
are  said  to  be  equal  or  superior  to  durrha. 

Early  Amber,  Early  Orange  and  other  important  varieties  resemble 
closely  the  broom  corns  in  habit  of  growth,  but  the  panicles  are  shorter 
and  less  spreading.  The  two  black,  shining,  empty  glumes  are  of  about 
the  same  length  as  those  of  broom  corn,  but  are  somewhat  broader  and, 
since  they  do  not  so  closely  envelop  the  caryopsis,  are  sometimes,  though 
not  usually,  removed  in  threshing. 

Numerous  loosely  attached  hairs  cover  the  surface  of  these  empty 
glumes,  but  they,  as  well  as  the  awned  flowering  glumes,  drop  off  in  the 
preparation  of  the  grain  for  the  market. 

Under  the  microscope  the  two  varieties  named  cannot  be  distinguished 
from  the  broom  corns  except  by  the  material  in  the  epidermal  cells  of  the 
empty  glumes,  to  which  they  owe  their  black  color. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  Broom  Corn,  p.  103. 


104  GRAIN. 

I 
KAFFIR  CORN. 

Kaffir  corn  (Andropogon  Sorghum  (L.)  Brot.)  is  the  chief  bread  cereal 
and  cattle  food  of  the  natives  'in  parts  of  South  Africa,  and  is  an  impor- 
tant product  in  parts  of  America.  The  fruit  is  borne  in  a  dense  head 
which  does  not  bend  over  at  maturity. 

The  empty  glumes  are  somewhat  shorter  than  the  fruit  and  the  flower- 
ing glume  is  not  awned.  The  caryopsis  is  white  or  red  according  to  the 
variety,  nearly  globular,  about  4  mm.  in  diameter  and  separates  from 
the  glumes  in  threshing. 

In  microscopic  structure  Kaffir  corn,  aside  from  the  absence  of  chaff, 
differs  from  the  broom  corns  and  sugar  sorghums  chiefly  in  that  the  peri- 
sperm  is  not  evident  either  in  cross-section  or  in  surface  preparation,  and 
in  that  the  hypoderm  is  more  strongly  developed,  often  consisting  of  three 
layers  of  thick-walled  cells. 

White  milo  maize  is  but  a  subvariety. 

^~          BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  Broom  Corn,  p.  103. 

DURRHA. 

Brown  durrha,  white  durrha  or  Jerusalem  corn,  and  yellow  milo 
maize  are  forms  of  Andropogon  Sorghum  var.  durra  (Forskal)  Hackel, 
differing  from  each  other  chiefly  in  the  color  of  the  caryopsis.  They  are 
grown  to  some  extent  in  America  for  the  grain,  which  is  used  as  food  for 
both  cattle  and  poultry.  The  plants  reach  the  height  of  2  to  3  meters, 
but  as  the  dense  heads  approach  maturity,  the  rachis  below  them  bends 
over,  forming  a  goose-neck. 

Both  of  the  empty  glumes  are  obtuse,  densely  hairy,  and  about  half 
the  length  of  the  large,  flattened,  more  or  less  lenticular  caryopsis,  which 
is  5  to  6  mm.  long  and  of  about  the  same  breadth.  The  flowering  glume 
of  white  durrha  is  awned,  but  that  of  red  durrha  and  yellow  milo  maize 
is  awnless.  As  found  in  the  market,  the. grain  is  usually  free  from  all 
envelopes. 

Although  to  the  naked  eye  the  fruits  of  the  three  varieties  are  much 
alike  except  in  color,  under  the  microscope  they  show  one  marked  differ- 
ence. In  brown  durrha  the  perisperm  or  nucellar  layer  is  always  strongly 
developed,  whereas  in  the  white  and  yellow  varieties  this  layer  is  not  evident. 


DURRHA.     RICE. 


The  other  parts  of  the  fruit  are  much  the  same  as  described  under 
broom  corn,  but  the  outer  layers  of  the  endosperm  normally  contain 
only  aleurone  grains. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


See  Broom  Corn,  p.  103. 


RICE. 

Rice  (Oryza  saliva  L.),  although  not  strictly  a  bread  grain,  furnishes 
daily  food  for  more  human  beings  than  any 
other  cereal.  It  is  the  chief  food  product  in 
China,  where  it  has  been  cultivated  for  nearly 
5000  years,  also  in  Japan,  India,  and  other 
Oriental  countries.  Its  culture  has  extended 
from  the  East  to  all  the  warmer  regions  of  the 
globe. 

The  inflorescence  is  in  panicles  (Fig.  72,  A) 
made  up  of  single-flowered  spikelets  (B),  each 
with  two  minute  empty  glumes,  a  thick,  awned, 
conspicuously  five-ribbed  flowering  glume,  and 
an  equally  thick,  three-ribbed  palet,  both  the 
latter  being  strongly  compressed  and  keeled.  The 
flowering  glume  and  palet  are  dull  and  lusterless, 
harsh  and  rasping  to  the  touch,  owing  to  numer- 
ous longitudinal  striations  with  transverse  mark- 
ings, which,  together  with  coarse  hairs,  are  readily 
seen  under  a  lens.  The  awn  is  seldom  found 
on  the  threshed  grain.  The  flattened  fruit  or 
caryopsis  (K)  is  oblong,  about  8  mm.  long  with 
blunt  base  and  apex.  The  relief  of  the  glumes 
is  impressed  on  the  surface,  forming  longitudinal 
grooves  and  ridges.  The  germ  is  situated  on  the  Fl***  ^ 
dorsal  edge  at  the  base. 


with  chaff;  Snaked  fruit; 
F  flower.     (NEES.) 


HISTOLOGY. 


Flowering  Glume  and  Palet.     Owing  to  the  silica  in  the  epidermis, 
rice  glumes  cannot  be  readily  sectioned  until  after  they  have  been  soaked 


io6 


GRAIN. 


for  some  time  in  alkali.  Maceration  in  Schulze's  fluid  serves  to  isolate 
the  elements. 

i.  The  Outer  Epidermis  (Figs.  73  and  74,  epl)  consists  of  parallel 
longitudinal  rows  of  large,  thick-walled  cells,  square  in  general  outline, 
with  highly  characteristic,  very  deeply  sinuous  side  walls.  Focusing  on 
the  outer  walls,  these  side  walls  are  seen  to  be  compoundly  sinuous. 

Stiff  dagger-shaped  hairs  (J1)  up  to  500  n  long  (usually  150-250  /*) 
and  40  IJL  in  diameter  at  the  base  are  scattered  over  the  surface,  being 


FIG.  73.  Rice.  Cross  section  of  palet  and  outer  portion  of  fruit.  P  palet  consists  of 
epl  outer  epidermis  with  hair,  /  hypoderm  fibers,  p  spongy  parenchyma  with  fv  bundle, 
and  ep21  inner  epidermis  with  sto  stoma;  F  pericarp  consists  of  epi  epicarp,  mes  mesocarp, 
tr  cross  cells,  and  tu  tube  cells;  S  spermoderm;  N  perisperm;  E  endosperm  consists 
of  al  aleurone  cells,  also  starch  cells.  Xi6o.  (WINTON.) 

especially  abundant  and  also  longest  on   the    ribs   and  near  the   apex. 
The  walls  are  5-9  /*  thick. 

2.  The  Hypoderm  (/)  consists  of  a  double  or  triple  layer  of  longi- 
tudinally-extended sclerenchyma  fibers.     In  the  outer  layers,  the  fibers 
are  strongly  thickened  and  often  have  comb-like  outgrowths,  which  join 
them  one  with  another  or  with  the  epidermis.     The  inner  fibers  are  thinner 
walled  and  have  outgrowths  only  on  the  outer  sides. 

3.  Spongy  Parenchyma  (p).     Two,  sometimes  more,  layers  of  spongy 
parenchyma,  through  which  run  the  bundles,  form  the  mesophyl.     The 
cells  are  rectangular,  with  thin  wavy  walls.     Intercellular  spaces  occur, 
not  only  at  the  angles,  but  also  between  the  surfaces  of  the  walls. 


RICE. 


107 


4.  Inner  Epidermis   (ep2).     In  cross-section,  this  layer  of  collapsed 
cells   appears   as   a  hyaline,   striated  membrane.      Surface  preparations 


FIG.  74.  Rice.  Layers  of  palet  in  surface  view.  epl  outer  epidermis  with  x  sinuous  cells, 
tl  hair,  and  y  hair  scar;  /  hypoderm  fibers;  p  spongy  parenchyma;  ep2  inner  epidermis 
with  sto  stoma  and  t2  hair.  X  160.  (WiNTON.) 

show  that  the  cells  over  the  bundles  are  elongated,  but  in  other  parts  are 
more  or  less  cubical.  The  cell-walls  are  thin  and  marked  with  delicate 
striations.  Between  these  cells  occur  one-  to  three-celled  (usually  two- 
celled)  very  thin-walled  hairs,  also  stomata,  consisting  of  two  peculiar 
guard  cells  and  two  somewhat  larger  companion  cells  with  protoplasmic 
contents. 

Pericarp  (Fig.  73,  F;  Fig.  75).  Sections  are  cut  after  removing  the 
hulls  and  soaking  for  some  hours  in  water.  Fragments  for  surface  ex- 
amination are  obtained  by  boiling  the  grain  for  a  few  moments  in  ij 
per  cent  alkali,  plunging  in  dilute  acetic  acid,  and  removing  the  outer  skin, 
which  readily  separates  after  this  treatment. 

1.  Epicarp  (epi).    The  outer  layer  of  the  fruit  is  the  easiest  found 
and  the  most  characteristic.     Unlike  the  epicarp  of  all  the  other  cereals, 
the  cells  are  transversely  elongated,  with  curious,  wavy,  end  walls.     They 
are  120-500  /*  long  and  30-100  //  wide,  and  are  arranged  side  by  side 
in  rows.  % 

2.  Mesocarp  (mes).     Several  layers  of  more  or  less  compressed  cells, 
indistinctly  seen  in  transverse  section,  underlie  the  epicarp.     In  the  first 
layer  or  two  these  cells  are  much  like  the  cross  cells  of  barley,  but  in  the 


Io8  GRAIN. 

inner  layers  they  are  more  elongated,  passing  into  the  vermiform  cells 
of  the  next  layer. 

3.  Cross  Cells  (tr).  As  all  the  cells  between  the  epicarp  and  tube 
cells  are  transversely  elongated,  increasing  in  length  but  decreasing  in 
breadth  from  without  inward,  a  sharp  classification  into  two  layers  is 
obviously  impossible.  The  cells  of  the  inner  layer,  here  designated  as 


.'mes 


N" 


FIG.  75.     Rice.     Bran  coats  in  surface  view,     epi  epicarp;    mes  mesocarp;    tr  cross  cells; 
tu  tube  cells;  5  spermoderm;    N  perisperm.     X3oo.     (WiNTON.) 

cross  cells,  are  strikingly  distinct  from  the  cross  cells  of  wheat,  rye,  barley, 
and  oats,  but  resemble  closely  those  of  maize,  sorghum,  and  millet.  They 
range  in  length  up  to  500  /*,  but  are  only  4-6  /*  broad.  As  a  rule  they 
are  nearly  straight,  but  in  parts  they  are  bent  and  even  branching.  They 
Occur  either  united  in  a  close  layer  or  detached. 

Tube  Cells  (tu).  The  detached  vermiform  cells  resemble  strikingly 
those  of  the  last  layer,  but  are  narrower,  being  but  3-5  /i  broad.  They 
are  the  only  cells  of  the  pericarp,  spermoderm,  or  perisperm  that  are  not 
transversely  elongated. 

Spermoderm  (Figs  73  and  75,  S).  Cross-sections,  previous  to  treat- 
ment with  reagents,  show  only  an  indistinct  structureless  line  between  the 
tube  cells  and  aleurone  layer;  but  after  heating  with  potash,  washing  in 
dilute  acetic  acid,  and  staining  with  chlorzinc  iodine,  the  cuticle  of  the 
spermoderm  is  evident  as  a  thin,  yellow  line,  and  the  perisperm  as  a  dark 
blue  layer.  After  the  removal  of  the  tnin  skin  forming  the  pericarp,  as 


RICE.  109 

already  described,  a  second,  thicker  skin,  consisting  chiefly  of  spermoderm, 
perisperm,  and  aleurone  cells  may  be  separated  by  scraping.  The  spermo- 
derm is  recognized  by  the  thin  cell-walls  and  the  bright  yellow  color 
due  to  the  thick  cuticle.  The  more  or  less  transversely  or  diagonally 
elongated  cells  resemble  those  of  wheat  and  other  cereals,  but  form  only 
one  layer. 

Perisperm  (Figs.  73  and  75,  N).  As  has  been  noted  in  the  preceding 
paragraph,  remains  of  the  nucellus  may  be  seen  in  section  after  treatment 
with  potash  and  staining  with  chlorzinc  iodine.  In  carefully  prepared 
mounts  the  reticulated  radial  walls  are  evident.  These  cells  are  easily 
seen  in  surface  view  in  mounts  prepared  as  above  described,  and  are 
distinguished  from  the  cells  of  the  spermoderm  by  the  beaded  appearance 
of  the  radial  walls,  due  to  reticulations,  and  their  dark  blue  color.  The 
cells  are  transversely  elongated  and  are  side  by  side  in  rows. 

Endosperm  (Fig.  73,  E).  i.  The  Aleurone  Cells  (al)  are  rounded 
polygonal,  25-40  /*  in  diameter,  with  uncommonly  thin* walls. 

2.  Starch  Parenchyma.  The  thin- walled  cells  contain  starch  grains 
(Fig.  76)  2-10  n  in  diameter  often  united  into-  oval  aggregates  containing 


'    FiG.   76.     Rice  Starch.     X  300.     (MOELLER.) 

from  two  to  upward  of  a  hundred  grains.  Grains  from  the  center  of  a 
large  aggregate  have  only  flat  facets,  but  those  from  the  outer  portion  are 
curved  on  the  exposed  surfaces.  Perfectly  round  grains  arc  rare.  In  com- 
mercial rice-starch  one  seldom  finds  aggregates,  since  they  are  usually 
broken  up  in  the  process  of  manufacture.  The  grains  shows  distinct 
crosses  with  crossed  Nicols,  the  hilum  being  centrally  located. 


HO  RICE. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole  Rice.  Rice  is  largely  used  as  a  human  food  in  the  form  of  the 
whole  grain  divested  of  the  chaff,  pericarp,  spermoderm,  the  larger  part 
of  the  germ,  and  some  of  the  aleurone  layer. 

Mill  Products.  Rice  Flour  and  various  other  mill  products  are  used 
to  a  limited  extent  in  preparing  infant  and  invalid  foods,  griddle  cakes, 
puddings,  etc. 

In  all  the  products  above  named,  the  microscopic  elements  are  starch 
grains  (Fig.  76) ,  occurring  as  individuals  or  in  aggregates,  aleurone  cells, 
and  occasional  fragments  of  other  parts  of  the  grain. 

Flaked  Rice  is  a  breakfast  preparation,  cooked  ready  for  use.  The 
starch  grains  are  much  distorted. 

Rice-starch  (see  p.  652). 

Rice  By-products.  Two  by-products  are  obtained  in  preparing  com- 
mercial rice:  first,  hulls  or,  more  correctly,  glumes  and  palets,  and  second, 
bran  or  middlings,  consisting  of  the  pericarp,  spermoderm,  germ,  and 
fragments  of  the  aleurone  layer. 

Rice  Hulls  are  useful  as  packing  for  eggs,  bottles,  etc.  Owing  to  their 
harshness,  as  well  as  the  lack  of  food  elements,  they  are  not  fit  for  cattle 
foods.  Ground  rice  hulls  are,  however,  used  for  adulterating  not  only 
fodders,  but  cocoa,  pepper,  and  other  human  foods.  Fragments  of 
sufficient  size  may  be  identified  under  a  lens  by  the  striations.  If,  while 
held  by  a  needle,  they  are  scraped  with  a  scalpel,  their  rough,  silicious 
nature  is  evident.  Under  the  microscope,  after  treatment  with  alkali  or 
macerating,  the  nearly  square  epidermal  cells  (Fig.  74,  ep1)  with  thick 
deeply  zigzag  walls  and  the  broad  dagger- shaped  hairs  (tl)  are  highly 
characteristic. 

Rice  Bran  is  a  valuable  fodder  and  is  a  common  adulterant  of  spices 
and  other  foods.  It  is  composed  not  only  of  the  elements  of  the  pericarp, 
spermoderm,  and  germ,  but  also  of  aleurone  cells  and  starch  parenchyma, 
and  often  is  contaminated  'with  hulls. 

The  most  characteristic  elements  of  the  fruit  are  the  epicarp  cells 
(Fig.  75,  epi)  with  zigzag  end  walls,  but  cross  cells  and  tube  cells  also  aid 
in  identification. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  Genera]  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bohmer  (6,  23);  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16,  17); 
Harz(i8);  Hassall  (19);  Leach  (25);  Mace  (26);  Moeller(29);  Planchonet  Collin  (34); 


OATS. 


in 


Tschirch    u.    Oesterle    (40);    Villiers    et    Collin    (42);     Vogl    (43,    45);    Wittmack 

(10). 

Also  see  Bibliography  of  Wheat,  pp.  72  and  73. 

BURCHARD:  Reis  und  Reisabfalle.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.     1896,  48,  in. 
v.  HOHNEL:  Die  anatomischen  Verhaltnisse  der  Reisspelze.     Haberland's  Wissensch,- 

prakt.  Unters.  auf  dem  Gebiete  des  Pflanzenbaues.  I,  149. 
STREET:  Rice  Hulls.    New  Jersey  Agrl.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  160,  1902. 

OATS. 

Oats  (Avena  saliva  L.)  are  not  only  a  valuable  food  for  horses  and 
other  cattle,  but  also  for  the  human  family.  For  generations  this  cereal 
has  been  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  diet  in  Norway,  Scotland,  and  Ireland, 
and  within  the  last  generation  oat  preparations  have  come  into  extensive 
use  in  America. 

The  numerous  varieties  are  grouped  under  two  races:  panicled  oats, 
with  loose  inflorescence,  and  banner  oats  (A.  orientalis  Schreb.),  with 
one-sided,  contracted  panicles.  Belonging  to  both  races,  are  naked  and 
chaffy,  awned  and  awnless  varieties.  Wild  oats  (A.  jatua  L.),  with 


SP 


FIG.  77.  Oats  (Avena  saliva).  Cross  section  of  flowering  glume  and  fruit.  Sp  flowering 
glume  consists  of  ep  outer  epidermis,  /  hypoderm  fibers,  p  spongy  parenchyma,  and 
i  inner  epidermis;  Fs  pericarp  consists  of  fe  epicarp  and  qu  cross  cells;  K  aleurone 
cells  of  the  endosperm.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 

geniculate  awns,  a  common  weed  in  grain  fields,  is  believed  by  many 
botanists  to  have  been  the  parent  of  the  principal  varieties  in  cultivation. 
The  two  or  more  flowered  spikelets  are  subtended  by  two  large,  mem- 
braneous, empty  glumes,  which  are  left  on  the  straw  after  threshing. 
In  the  common  varieties,  each  grain  is  closely  enveloped  by  the  smooth, 
rounded,  silicified,  five  or  more  veined,  but  not  ribbed  flowering  glume, 
and  the  two-nerved,  thin,  palet.  The  flowering  glume  has  narrow,  thin, 


112 


GRAIN. 


edges;  the  palet,  broad,  membraneous  wings  which  clasp  the  fruit.    The 

I 


FIG.  78.     Oats.     Outer    epidermis  from    the    margin  of    the    flowering  glume,     h  hairs; 
/  crescent-shaped  cells.     X  300.     (MOELLER.) 

awn  of  the  flowering  glume,  when  present,  is  broken  off  in  cleaning  the 


i— i 


FIG.  79.  Oats.  Elements  of  chaff  (flowering  glumes  and  palets)  isolated  by  maceration. 
ep  elongated  cells,  /  crescent-shaped  cells  and  K  silica  cell,  all  of  the  outer  epidermis; 
h  hair;  /  hypodcrm  fibers.  Xioo.  (MOELLER.) 

grain.     Freed  of  the  chaff,  the  grain  is  spindle-shaped,  with  a  silky-hairy 


OATS. 


shallow  groove  on  the  ventral  side.     The  germ  is  about  one-third  the  length 
of  the  fruit. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Flowering  Glume,  i.  The  Outer  Epidermis  (Fig.  77,  ep)  consists 
of  elongated  cells  with  thick,  wavy  walls,  twin  cells  (one  of  which  is  usually 
crescent-shaped),  and  circular  cells.  On  the  body  of  the  glume  the  cell- 
walls  are  often  thicker  than  the  cavity  (Fig.  79,  ep)  while  on  the  edges 
(Fig.  78)  they  are  much  thinner.  Hairs  occur  on  the  edges,  being  most 


St 


FIG.  81.  Oats.  Inner  layers  of  chaff  (flowering 
glume  or  palet),  in  surface  view.  p  spongy 
parenchyma;  i  inner  epidermis  with  st  stomata. 
(MOELLEE.) 


FIG.  80.  Oats.  Cells  and  hairs  from 
membranous  margin  of  flowering 
glume.  Xi6o.  (MoELLER.) 


numerous  near  the  apex.  They  are  mostly  rigid,  thick- walled,  dagger- 
shaped,  broad  at  base  (15-20  //)  and  seldom  exceed  60  /*  in  length.  Some 
at  the  very  edge  are  thin-walled,  with  a  slight  curve  toward  the  end,  giving 
them  a  peculiar,  hooked  appearance  (Fig.  80). 

2.  Hypoderm  Fibers  (Figs.  77  and  79,  /),  for  the  most  part  in  4-10 
layers,  form  a  dense,  hard  coat.     The  individuals  often  exceed  i  mm.  in 
length,  and  have  thick,  sparingly  porous  walls.     As  may  be  seen  after 
maceration,  the  walls  adjoining  the  epidermis  are  often  toothed. 

3.  The  Spongy  Parenchyma  (Figs.  77  and  81,  p)  is  distinguished  from 
the  corresponding  layer  of  other  cereals  by  the  star-shaped  form  of  the  cells. 


GRAIN. 


4.  The  Inner  Epidermis  (i)  consists  of  thin-walled  cells  and  stomata. 

The  Palet.  The  middle  portion  of  the  palet  has  practically  the  same 
structure  as  the  flowering  glume,  except  that  the  hypoderm  layer  is  thinner; 
but  the  membraneous  wings  have  an  outer  epidermis  made  up  of  thin- walled 
cells,  and  a  rudimentary  hypoderm  or  else  no  hypoderm  whatever.  Near 
the  keels  and  parallel  to  them  are  rows  of  stomata,  and  on  the  keels  are 
numerous  stiff,  thick- walled,  pointed  hairs  about  15  n  in  diameter  at 
the  base  and  upward  of  100  /*  long.  As  the  palet  often  breaks  or  bends 
on  the  keels  these  hairs  form  a  highly  characteristic  saw-tooth  edge. 


FiG.  82.     Oats.     Bran  coats  in  surface  view.     }e  epicarp  with  long  hairs;    jm  mesocarp; 
qu  cross  cells;   K  aleurone  cells.     X  160.     (MOELLER.)" 

Pericarp  (Figs.  77  and  82).  In  cross-section  the  pericarp  and  spermo- 
derm  do  not  show  details  of  structure.  The  following  characters  may 
be  observed  in  surface  view: 

i.  Epicarp.  The  cells  on  the  body  of  the  grain  are  longitudinally 
elongated,  with  thin,  porous  side  walls,  but  at  the  apex  and  base  are  nearly 


OATS.  115 

isodiametric.  The  long  hairs  which  clothe  the  apex  often  exceed  200  ^  in 
length.  They  are  usually  broadest  in  the  middle  (about  20  //),  tapering 
toward  both  ends.  The  base  is  sometimes  so  narrow  as  to  be  hardly 
distinguishable  from  the  apex. 

2.  The  Mesocarp  or  Middle  Coat  (jm)  is  ill-defined. 

3.  Cross  Cells  (qu).    The  thin- walled,  inconspicuous  cells  are  arranged 
side  by  side  in  rows. 

The  Spermoderm  and  Perisperm  are  not  evident  in  the  ripe  grain. 

Endosperm  (Figs.  76  and  82).  i.  The  Aleurone  Layer  (K)  is  commonly 
one  cell-layer  thick.  The  cells  are  20-60  /*,  and  have  thinner  walls  (double 
walls  5  PL  or  less)  than  in  wheat,  rye  and  barley. 

2.  Starch  Parenchyma.  The  large,  thin- walled  cells  contain  starch 
grains  (Fig.  83)  which  for  the  most  part  are  polygonal,  and  are  collected 


FIG.  83.     Oat  Starch.     X  300.     (MOELLER.) 

in  ellipsoidal  or  rounded  aggregates  (up  to  60  /*)  of  from  two  to  many  grains. 
Among  the  simple  grains  are  characteristic  spindle-shaped  forms.  The 
individual  grains  seldom  exceed  10  fi  in  diameter,  and  are  commonly  much 
less. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Oats  are  commonly  fed  to  horses  and  other  farm  animals  without 
removing  the  chaff,  and  often  without  grinding.  Ground  pats  are  fre- 
quently mixed  with  other  cereal  products,  particularly  those  containing 
less  fibrous  matter.  Provender,  a  mixture  of  ground  oats  and  maize, 
is  one  of  the  commonest  horse  feeds  in  the  United  States. 

The  elements  of  chief  importance  in  diagnosis  are:  first,  the  smooth, 
rounded  (not  ribbed  as  in  barley)  flowering  glume,  with  an  epidermis 
(Fig.  79,  ep)  of  thick,  wavy-walled,  elongated  cells,  circular  cells  and 
twin  cells,  and  with  star-shaped  (not  rectangular  as  in  other  cereals) 


1 1 6  GRAIN. 

spongy  parenchyma  cells  (Fig.  81,  p);  second,  the  palet  of  more  delicate 
structure,  having  keels  barbed  with  coarse  hairs,  forming  saw- toothed 
edges;  third,  the  epicarp  with  long,  slender  hairs  (Fig.  82),  often  nar- 
rowed at  the  base;  fourth,  the  rounded  aggregates  of  polygonal  starch 
grains  and  spindle-shaped  forms  (Fig.  83). 

Oatmeal,  Rolled  Oats,  and  similar  "  breakfast  cereals,"  contain  all 
the  above  elements  except  those  of  the  chaff,  though  in  some  of  these 
products  the  starch  grains  have  been  distorted  by  cooking. 

Oat  By-products,  consisting  chiefly  of  chaff,  are  obtained  in  the  manu- 
facture of  breakfast  cereals  and  are  used  in  mixed  cattle  foods.  They 
are  inferior  in  nutritive  value,  being  rich  in  fiber  but  poor  in  protein,  fat 
and  starch.  The  glumes  and  palets  are  distinguished  from  the  corre- 
sponding parts  of  barley  by  the  characters  above  named. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Berg  (3);  Bohmer  (6,  23);  Hanausek,  T.  F. 
(16);  Harz  (18);  Hassall  (19);  Leach  (25);  Mace  (26);  Moeller  (29);  Planchon  et 
Collin  (34);  Schimper  (37),r  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogi 
(43,  45);  Wittmack  (10). 

Also  see  Bibliography  of  Wheat,  pp.  72  and  73. 
EMMERLING:  Ueber  eine  einfache  Unterscheidungsweise  von  Gersten-  un4  Haferspelzen. 

Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1898,  50,  i. 
WHITE:  Note  on  the  Use  of  Maize  as  an  Adulterant  of  Oatmeal.     Analyst.  1895,  20,  30. 


COMMON    MILLET. 

Millet  (Panicum  miliaceum  L.),  an  ancient  cereal,  is  still  extensively 
cultivated  for  grain  in  India,  China,  and  Japan,  and  to  some  extent  in 
Russia  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  In  America  it  is  grown  only  for  green 
fodder  and  hay. 

The  nearly  globular  fruit  is  tightly  clasped  by  the  flowering  glume 
and  palet,  the  whole  forming  an  oval  grain  3  mm.  long  and  2  mm.  broad. 
Both  envelopes  are  of  a  uniform  buff  or  straw  color  and  are  smooth  and 
lustrous. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Flowering  Glumes  and  Palet.  The  Outer  Epidermal  cells  on  the  palet 
and  the  central  part  of  the  glume  are  isodiametric  or  somewhat  elongated, 
with  compoundly  sinuous  side  and  end  walls ;  on  the  edges  of  the  glume 
they  are  more  elongated,  with  straight  end  walls.  Both  forms  have 
smooth  outer  walls  and  are  without  colored  contents. 


COMMON  MILLET.  Il7 

The  Hypoderm  Fibers,  rectangular  parenchyma  cells  without  inter- 
cellular spaces,  and  the  inner  epidermis  also  of  rectangular  cells,  are 
the  same  as  in  the  glumes  and  palet  of  Setaria. 

The  Caryopsis  agrees  in  structure  with  that  of  Setaria  viridis  and  S. 
Italica,  except  that  the  aleurone  cells  are  25-50  /*  in  diameter,  whereas 
in  Setaria  they  seldom  exceed  20  /£.  Vogl  has  shown  that  on  treatment 


FIG.  84.     Common  Millet  (Panicum  miliaceum).    Starch  cells  of  endosperm  showing  (at 
the  left)  beaded  network  remaining  after  treatment  with  alkali.     (VOGL.) 

with  alkali  the  starch  grains  dissolve,  leaving  a  beaded  network  corre- 
sponding to  the  form  of  the  grains  (Fig.  84). 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  chief  products  of  millet  are  grits  and  the  chaff  and  other  by- 
products obtained  in  the  preparation  of  grits. 

Millet  grits  contains  starchy  matter,  large  aleurone  celb,  and  frag- 
ments of  other  bran  elements. 

In  chaffy  by-products,  the  glumes  and  palets  are  distinguished  from 
those  of  chaffy  wheats,  barley,  oats,  rice,  maize,  darnel,  and  chess  by 
the  absence  of  hairs,  and  of  twin  cells,  and  also  by  the  rectangular  paren- 
chyma cells  without  intercellular  spaces;  from  those  of  German  millet 
by  the  absence  of  wrinkles  on  the  outer  epidermis,  and  from  those  of 
green  foxtail  by  the  absence  of  both  wrinkles  and  patches  of  brown  tis- 
sues. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Ueber  die  Malta.    Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1887,  1,  24. 
NETOLITZKY:    Mikroskopische   Untersuchung  ganzlich   verkohlter   vorgeschichtlicher 

Nahrungsmittel  aus  Tirol.     Ztschr. '  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm.  1900,  3,  401. 
VOGL:  Die  wichtigsten  vegetabilischen  Nahrungs-  und  GenussmitteL     Berlin  u,  Wien, 

1899,  135. 


Ii8  GRAIN. 


GERMAN   MILLET. 

There  is  good  evidence  that  German  millet  or  Hungarian  grass  (Seta- 
ria  Italica  Beauv.,  S.  panis  Jessen)  was  the  chief  -cereal  of  the  lake 
dwellers  and  other  prehistoric  races.  In  China  as  early  as  2700  B.C. 
it  ranked  with  rice  as  one  of  the  staple  crops,  and  is  still  an  important 
cereal  in  the  East.  In  other  parts  of  the  world  it  is  grown  largely  for 
hay  or  for  poultry  food.  Since  German  millet  is  regarded  as  but  a  form 
of  green  foxtail  (Setaria  mridis)  developed  by  cultivation,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  the  fruits  of  the  two  agree  closely  both  in  macroscopic  and 
microscopic  structure. 

The  glumes  and  palets  are  of  a  yellow  or  buff  color,  which  aids  in  dis- 
tinguishing them  from  the  spotted  or  dark  envelopes  of  green  foxtail. 
In  other  respects  the  two  grains  are  not  distinguishable. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Ueber  die  Matta.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1887,  1,  24. 
VOGL:  Die  wichtigsten  vegetabilischen  Nahrungs-  u.   Genussmittel.     Berlin  u.  Wien, 
1899,  i35- 

GREEN    FOXTAIL. 

Green  foxtail  (Setaria  mridis  Beauv.,  Chaetockloa  viridis  (L.)  Scribn.) 
is  a  troublesome  weed  in  both  continents,  particularly  in  the  grain  fields 
of  the  northwestern  states  of  the  United  States.  The  seed  has  been 
found  in  American  screenings  in  quantities  varying  up  to  n.6  per  cent. 

The  inflorescence  is  in  dense,  bristly  spikes,  or  rather  spiked  panicles, 
4-10  cm.  long.  Each  spikelet  consists  of  two  empty  glumes  and  two 
flowers,  one  perfect  with  coriaceous  transversely  wrinkled  glume  and 
palet,  the  other  staminate  with  membraneous  envelopes  (Fig.  85).  At 
the  base  of  the  spikelet  are  from  two  to  four  upwardly  barbed  bristles 
varying  in  length  up  to  8  mm. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Empty  Glumes  and  Glume  of  Sterile  Flower  (Fig.  85,  g1,  g2  and 

g/1).  The  lower  empty  glume  is  three- veined  and  less  than  i  mm.  long; 
the  upper  empty  glume  and  the  glume  of  the  staminate  flower  are  five- 
veined  and  2  mm.  long.  In  microscopic  structure  the  three  are  practi- 
cally identical. 


GREEN  FOXTAIL. 


119 


i.  Outer  Epidermis  (Fig.  86).  Characteristic  of  this  layer  are  the 
elongated  cells  with  sinuous  'side  walls  and  longitudinal  rows  of  pits  so 
arranged  that  one  pit  occurs  in  each  concave  bend  of  the  wall.  On 
the  middle  portion  of  the  mature  glume  each  of  these  pits  is  so  large 
that  it  fills  completely  the  bend  of  the  wall  and  in  addition  has  a  thickened 
border,  half  of  which  coincides  with  the  cell- wall,  thus  giving  the  tissue 
a  lace-like  appearance.  This  structure  is  optically  delusive,  the  pit 


FIG.  85.  Green  Foxtail  (Setaria  viridis).  I 
spikelet  with  ripe  fruit:  gl  lower  empty 
glume;  g2  upper  empty  glume;  gf1  glume 
and  pl  palet  of  staminate  flower;  g/2  glume 
and  p2  palet  of  fertile  flower;  c  fruit  or 
caryopsis;  b  bristles.  II  and  III  caryopsis 
enclosed  by  flowering  glume  and  palet. 

X  8.       (WlNTON.) 


FIG.  86.  Green  Foxtail.  Outer 
epidermis  of  the  glume  of  the 
staminate  flower.  7  at  the  edge; 
//  in  the  middle.  X  300.  ( WIN- 
TON.) 


borders  often  appearing  to  be  the  cell-walls,  but  is  resolved  by  careful 
focusing  and  comparison  with  the  tissue  in  earlier  stages  of  growth. 

In  addition  to  these  elongated  cells,  pairs  of  short  cells,  one  isodia- 
metric,  probably  a  hair-scar,  the  other  more  or  less  crescent-shaped, 
occur  here  and  there,  and  less  frequently  stomata  and  thin- walled  one- 
to  three-jointed  hairs. 

2.  Mesophyl;     Only  about  the  nerves  and  the  basal  portions  of  the 
glumes  is  this  coat  evident.     It  has  no  diagnostic  importance. 

3.  The  Inner  Epidermis  is  composed  of  elongated  cells  with  straight 
walls. 

Palet  of  Staminate  Flower  (Fig.  85,  p1).  Within  the  glume  of  the 
staminate  flower  is  the  palet,  a  hyaline  scale  only  i  mm.  or  less  long  with 


120  GRAIN. 

a  notch  at  the  end.     In  general  structure,  it  is  much  the  same  as  the  other 
thin  envelopes,  but  the  cell-walls  are  thinner. 

1.  Outer  Epidermis.     The  narrow,  elongated  cells  are  wavy  in  outline, 
but  pits  are  lacking  or  are  indistinct.     Isodiametric  cells  and  thin-walled 
jointed  hairs  also  occur. 

2.  Inner  Epidermis.     Except  at  the  base,  where  traces  of  mesophyl 
are  sometimes   evident,   the  inner  epidermis  immediately  underlies  the 
outer  epidermis. 

Glume  and  Palet  of  Perfect  Flower  (Fig.  85,  gp,  p2).  Both  the  glume 
and  the  palet  of  the  fertile  flower  closely  envelop  the  grain  at  maturity, 
the  former  being  strongly  convex,  the  latter  flat  except  on  the  edges 
which  clasp  about  the  caryopsis.  At  the  time  of  flowering  these  envelopes 
are  thin  and  of  a  green  color,  but  at  maturity  they  are  coriaceous,  silici- 
fied  and  of  a  brown  or  mottled  color.  Under  a  lens,  numerous  transverse 
wrinkles  are  evident  on  the  glume  and  on  the  middle  or  flat  portion  of  the 
palet,  the  lateral  portions  of  the  latter  which  clasp  the  caryopsis  being 
smooth  and  shining.  - 

i.  Outer  Epidermis  (Figs.  87,  88,  89).  Throughout  the  glume  and  on 
the  middle  portion  of  the  palet,  the  cells  are  isodiametric  or  moderately 


FlG.  87.     Green  Foxtail.     Outer  epidermis  of  glume  of  fertile  flower,  showing  the  smooth 
edge  and  the  wrinkled  and  mottled  central  portion.     (WiNTON.) 

elongated  and  are  arranged  not  only  in  longitudinal  rows  but  also  in 
irregular  transverse  rows,  the  wrinkles  being  formed  by  the  outward  bending 
of  the  cells  at  the  end  walls  and  the  inward  bending  halfway  between. 


GREEN  FOXTAIL. 


121 


At  the  time  of  flowering,  it  may  be  seen  that  at  the  outer  surface  the  end 
walls  are  sinuous  and  the  side  walls  are  compoundly  sinuous  (Fig.  88,  /), 
but  further  inward  the  end  walls  are  nearly  straight  and  the  side  walls 
are  simply,  not  compoundly  sinuous  (Fig.  88,  //).  At  the  end  of  each 


III 

FlG.  88.  Green  Foxtail.  Outer  epidermis  from  middle  of  glume  of  fertile  flower.  7 
Outer  surface  and  II  inner  surface  soon  after  blooming.  ///  Outer  surface  when  in 
fruit.  X  300.  (WINTON.) 

cell  nearest  the  apex  of  the  envelope,  a  cuticular  wart  bearing  a  group 
of  pits  is  usually  evident,  particularly  on  the  palet  (Fig.  88,  /).  About 
these  warts  the  adjoining  end  walls  are  more  or  less  curved  and  the 
side  walls  are  not  so  deeply  sinuous.  At  maturity  the  cell  cavity  beneath 


122 


GRAIN. 


the  wart  is  conspicuous  (on  the  palet  nearly  circular),  but  at  the  other 
end  of  the  cell  is  narrow  or  not  evident  at  all  owing  to  the  encroachment 

of  the  strongly  thickened  walls  (Fig.  87; 
Fig.  88,  ///). 

The  cell  contents  during  the  early 
stages  of  development  are  colorless,  but 
later  on  usually  become  dark  brown. 

The  epidermal  cells  on  the  lateral  or 
smooth  portions  of  the  palet  which  clasp 
about  the  caryopsis  are  longer,  narrower, 
and  less  complex  than  those  already  de- 
scribed (Fig.  89). 

At  maturity  the  wrinkles  are  usually 
30-60  n  apart. 

2.  The  Hypoderm    Fibers    may  be 
readily  isolated  by  treatment  on  the  slide 
with  caustic  alkali.     They  vary  in  length 

TLen  Foxtail.      Outer  epi-    UP  tO  °'6  mm'   and  arG    °ftei1   tOOthed  at 
clermis  from  edge  of  glume  of  fertile    £he  margin, 
flower.     X3oo.     (WiNTON.) 

3.  Mesophyl.      Rectangular    paren- 
chyma cells  without  intercellular  spaces  make  up  this  layer.    Numerous 
chlorophyl  granules  are  present  at  the  time  of  flowering. 

4.  The  Inner  Epidermis  is  composed  of  rectangular  cells  resembling 
those  of  the  mesophyl.  Both  of  these  layers  become  more  or  less  obliterated 
at  maturity  and  are  of  no  diagnostic  importance. 

Pericarp  (Figs.  90  and  91).  The  ventral  side  is  flat  and  has  a  dark 
colored  spot,  the  remains  of  the  hilum,  near  the  base.  Extending  half- 
way from  the  base  to  the  apex  on  the  dorsal  side  is  a  groove,  which  marks 
the  position  of  the  embryo. 

1.  Epicarp.   (ep).      As   in   the  outer  epidermal  layers  of  the  floral 
envelopes  the  cells  are  elongated  and  wavy  in  outline.     On  the  dark 
colored  spot  already  referred  to,  the  epidermal  cells  are  more  or  less 
rectangular. 

2.  The  Cross  Cells  (q)  are  similar  to  the  tube  cells'in  form,  but  are 
usually  shorter,  broader,  and  more  irregular  in  shape. 

3.  Tube  Cells  (sch).    These  are  2-4  /*  wide  and  often  reach  the  length 

Of   3OO  fJL. 

Perisperm  (AT).     After  treatment  with  alkali,  this  layer  is  clearly  seen 
in  surface  view.     The  cells  are  of  large  size  and  have  beaded  walls. 


GREEN  FOXTAIL. 


I23 


Endosperm,     i.  Aleurom   Layer    (al).    The    cells    are    10-20  /*    in 
diameter. 

2.  Starch  Cells  (Fig.  90,  s).     Polygonal  starch  grains  with  conspicu- 


FiG.  90.  Green  Foxtail.  Cross  section  of  outer  portion  of  fruit.  F  pericarp  consists  of 
ep  epicarp,  q  cross  cells,  and  sch  tube  cells;  N  perisperm;  E  endosperm  consists  of 
al  aleurone  cells  and  s  starch  cells.  Xsoo.  (WiNTON.) 

ous  hilum  fill  the  parenchyma  cells  of  the  endosperm.  In  the  outer 
layers  they  are  from  4-8  /*  in  diameter,  but  further  inward  they  reach 
the  maximum  diameter  of  18  /*. 

After  dissolving  the  starch  with  alkali,  there  remains  a  network  of 


FIG.  91.     Green  Foxtail.     Bran  coats  in  surface  view,     ep  epicarp;   q  cross  cells;    sch  tube 
cells;    N  perisperm ;    al  aleurone  cells.     X3OO.     (WiNTON.) 

threads  containing  conspicuous  granules,  which  is  very  different  from  the 
network   of  homogeneous   threads  obtained  from  polygonaceous   seeds. 


1  24  GRAIN. 

In  this  respect,  however,  this  fruit  cannot  be  distinguished  from  the 
fruits  of  S.  glauca  Beauv.,  S.  panis  Jessen,  Panicum  miliaceum  L.  (see 
Vogl)  and  other  species  of  Panicum. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  membraneous  glumes  with  pores  in  the  bends  of  the  walls  (Fig. 
86)  and  the  coriaceous,  transversely  wrinkled,  more  or  less  spotted, 
envelopes  of  the  fertile  flower  with  compoundly  sinuous,  thickened  cell- 
walls  (Figs.  87  and  88)  are  highly  characteristic  of  both  green  and  yellow 
foxtail.  These  tissues  are  usually  present  in  all  stages  of  development. 

The  fruit  elements  are  like  those  of  common  millet  and  German 
millet.  Treatment  with  alkali  brings  out  the  structure  of  the  fruit  coats 
and  perisperm,  and  serves  to  distinguish  this  fruit  from  the  common 
cereals. 

The  starch  is  hardly  distinguishable  in  form  from  the  starch  of  bind- 
weed, but  the  network  remaining  after  treatment  with  alkali  is  beaded. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

WINTON:   Ueber  amerikanische  Weizen-Ausreuter.     Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm. 
1903,  6,  433.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1902,  339. 

YELLOW    FOXTAIL. 

The  fruit  of  this  species  (Setaria  glauca  Beauv.,  Chaetochloa  glauca 
(L.)  Scribn.)  is  larger  than  that  of  green  foxtail,  the  envelopes  are  also 

proportionately  larger  (with  the  exception 
of  the  upper  empty  glume  which  is  but 
half  the  length  of  the  spikelet)  and  the 
wrinkles  on  the  glume  of  the  fertile  flower 
are  more  pronounced  (Fig.  92). 

In  microscopic    structure    the    fruits 
of  the  two    species   are  identical.      The 
floral  envelopes  are  also  much  alike,  the 
FIG.   92.      Yellow   Foxtail    (Setaria    only    distinction    being    in    the   distance 


- 

II  showing  palet  and  edge  of  glume,    flowering:  fflumes.     In  green  foxtail  this 

X8.     (Photograph  by  W.  E.  BRIT-      ..  &.  &  .    •          n 

TON.)  distance  is  usually  30-60  JJL,  but  in  yellow 

foxtail  it  is  often  80-120  /*.      Since  this 
distinction  does  not  apply  to  the  immature  glumes  and  since  the  wrinkles 


DARNEL 


I25 


on  the  palets  of  the  two  species  are  practically  the  same,  it  is  often  diffi- 
cult to  identify  the  species  in  ground  mixtures.  Fortunately,  identifica- 
tion of  the  genus  is  all  that  is  usually  required. 


DARNEL. 

The  microscopic  identification  of  darnel  (Lolium  temulentum  L.)  is 
important,  as  this  fruit  not  only  is  one  of  the  commonest  impurities  of 
European  and  Californian  wheat,  but  also  contains  a  poisonous  prin- 
ciple (temulin)  which  renders  it  highly  pernicious. 

The   four-   to   eight-flowered   spikelet  is  inclosed   within  a  strongly- 
nerved    empty   glume   which,    however,    is   seldom 
found  in  the  threshed  grain. 

Adherent  to  each  caryopsis  is  a  flowering  glume 
6-8  mm.  long,  and  a  two-keeled  palet  of  about  the 
same  size  but  of  thinner  texture  (Fig.  93).  The 
flowering  glume  is  obscurely  five-nerved,  lobed  at 
the  end,  and  bears  an  upwardly-barbed  awn  often 
15  mm.  long.  In  cross  section  the  caryopsis  is 
U-shaped,  owing  to  the  deep  groove  on  the  ventral 
side. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  Flowering  Glume,  like  the  glumes  of  barley, 
oats,  and  other  cereals,  consists  of  four  coats,  some 
of  which,  however,  are  lacking  on  the  margins  and 
at  the  end. 

i.  The  Outer  Epidermis  differs  greatly  in  struc- 
ture in  different  parts  of  the  glume.  At  the 
margins  (Fig.  94)  it  consists  of  straight-walled, 
elongated  cells  interspersed  here  and  there  with  short  FIG.  93.  Darnel  (Lolium 

i  i  IT-  <^\xi  e    -i  temulentum}.      a  dorsal 

lance-shaped  h^irs.  On  the  greater  part  of  the  sur-  side  and  b  'ventral  side, 
face,  however,  the  cells,  as  in  barley  and  some  other  enlarged  c  dorsal  side, 

natural  size.     (NOBBE.) 

cereals,  are  of  three  kinds  (Fig.  95):  first,  cells  of 

wavy  outline,  into  which  the  straight-walled  cells  at  the  margin  pass; 
second,  circular  cells  corresponding  to  the  conical  hair-cells  of  barley;  third, 
exceedingly  short,  more  or  less  crescent-shaped  cells.  Near  the  margins 
and  on  the  veins,  where  they  alternate  with  stomata,  the  cells  of  wavy 
outline  are  elongated;  but  in  other  parts  they  are  very  short,  often  being 


126 


GRAIN. 


broader  than  long.     Although  the  cells  are  thick-walled,  the  walls   are 
transparent,  and  the  middle  lamella  is  conspicuous,  giving  the  impression 


FIG.  94.  Darnel.  Margin  of  flower- 
ing glume  showing  lance-shaped 
hairs.  X  300.  (MOELLER.) 


FIG.    95.     Darnel.     Middle  portion    of    flowering 
glume.     X 1 60.     (WiNTON.) 


of  thin-walled  cells.  Pores  are  few  and  inconspicuous.  Near  the  margin 
the  circular  cells  are  small  and  are  usually  accompanied  by  crescent- 
shaped  cells  which  often  exceed  them  in  size.  On  the  greater  part  of  the 
glume,  however,  the  circular  cells  are  much  larger,  often  being  70  /*  in 
diameter.  Numerous  pores  are  conspicuous,  both  in  the  radial  and 
tangential  walls.  Often  one,  sometimes  two,  crescent-shaped  cells  ac- 
company a  circular  cell. 

Characteristic  of  this  coat  are  the  short,  wavy  cells  and  the  numerous 
circular  cells,  the  latter  frequently  exceeding  in  area  the  former. 

2.  Hypoderm.    The  fibers  in  this  layer  are  much  the  same  as  in 
cereals.     Fibers  of  similar  structure  also  make  up  the  ground  tissue  of 
the  awn. 

3.  Spongy  Parenchyma.    The  elements  are  more  or  less  rectangular 
in  shape,  like  those  of  the  corresponding  layer  of  barley,  and  are  readily 
distinguished  from  the  star-shaped  elements  of  oats. 

4.  Inner  Epidermis.    This   layer   is   made   up   of   thin-walled   cells 
and  stomata,   and  is  of  no  diagnostic  importance. 

The  Palet  lacks  a  well-developed  hypoderm  layer  except  beneath  the 
keels. 

The  Outer  Epidermis  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  flowering  glume, 
except  that  it  is  barbed  on  the  keels  with  rigid,  thorn-like  hairs  150  // 
or  less  in  length  (Fig.  96). 


DARNEL. 


127 


The  Pericarp  (Fig.  97,  F\  Fig.  98)  consists  of  four  coats,  of  which 
only  two,  the  epidermis  and  cross  cells,  are  fully  developed. 

i.  Epidermis  (ep).  Cross  sections  of  the  mature  seed  show  that 
this  layer  consists  of  collapsed,  moderately  thick-walled  cells,  which  are 


FIG.  96.    DarneL     Keel  of  palet  showing  outer  epidermis  with  h  hairs,  and  /  hypoderm 

fibers.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 


St 


B 


f 


FIG.  97.  Darnel.  Cross  section  of  outer  portion  of  fruit.  .F  pericarp  consists  of  ep  epi- 
carp,  m  mesocarp,  q  cross  cells,  and  sch  tube  cells;  S  spermoderm  consists  of  a  outer 
layer  and  i  inner  layer;  N  perisperm;  /  fungus  layer;  E  endosperm  consists  of  al 
aleurone  layer,  and  st  starch  cells.  X  160.  (WINTON.) 

best  studied  after  heating  with  alkali.  Seen  in  surface  view,  the  cells 
at  the  apex  of  the  seed  are  nearly  isodiametric,  but  at  other  parts  are 
elongated.  The  walls  are  indistinctly  beaded. 


128 


GRAIN. 


2.  The  Mesocarp  (m)  is  not  developed  on  all  parts  of  the  seed,  but 
is  conspicuous  on  the  angles.     The  cells  vary  greatly  in  shape  and  size, 


FlG.  98.  Darnel.  Bran  coats  in  surface  \dew.  ep  epicarp;  m  mesocarp;  q  cross  cells; 
sch  tube  cells;  a  outer  and  *  inner  layer  of  spermoderm ;  N  perisperm;  /  fungus  layer; 
al  aleurone  cells.  Xi6o.  (WiNTON.) 

some    being  irregularly  isodiametric,  others    transversely   elongated,  re- 
sembling the  cells  of  the  next  layer. 

3.  Cross  Cells   (q).     Especially  striking  are  the  cells   of  this   layer, 
which  resemble   the   cross  cells    of   barley.     The   side  walls   are  indis- 
tinctly beaded. 

4.  Tube  Cells,   spongy  parenchyma,   and   various  intermediate  forms 
(sch)  make  up  the  interrupted  inner  layer  of  the  pericarp. 

Spermoderm  (5).  The  cells  are  for  the  most  part  ejongated  and  are 
often  diagonally  arranged  with  reference  to  the  axis  of  the  fruit.  In  trans- 
verse sections  this  coat  often  separates  from  the  pericarp  on  the  one  hand 
and  the  perisperm  on  the  other.  Examined  in  water,  only  one  cell  layer 
(the  inner)  is  evident:  but  successive  treatments  with  5  per  cent  alkali, 
dilute  acetic  acid  and  chlorzinc  iodine,  bring  out  two  layers. 

1 .  The  Outer  Layer  (a)  is  made  up  of  thin- walled  cells  with  cuticularized 
outer  walls.     Treated  as  above  described,  the  cuticle  is  colored  yellow- 
brown,  the  radial  and  inner  walls,  blue. 

2.  The  Inner  Layer  (i)  is  not  only  thicker  than  the  outer,  but  the 
cells  are  thicker- walled  and,  in  addition,  swell  greatly  with  alkali.     These 


DARNEL. 


swollen  walls  are  stained  deep  blue  by  chlorzinc  iodine,  thus  differentiating 
them  from  the  yellow-brown  cuticle  on  the  inner  wall. 

Perisperm  (N).  Characteristic  of  this  seed  is  the  perisperm,  con- 
sisting usually  of  two  cell  layers.  In  cross  section  these  cells  are  rectan- 
gular with  swollen  walls;  in  surface  view,  as  may  be  seen  after  soaking 
for  a  long  time  in  dilute  alkali,  they  are  irregularly  polygonal  or  more 
or  less  elongated. 

Fungus  Layer  (/).     In  most  specimens  a  layer  of  fungus  threads  20  « 

thick  is  present  between  the  perisperm  and  the  aleurone  layer.   So  com- 

monly is  this  fungus  present  in  darnel  grown  in  Europe,  that  it  is  of  no 

ttle  value  in  identifying  the  grain;    but  it  remains  to  be  determined 

whether  m  California,  where  the  plant  is  a  pest  in  wheat  fields,  the  fungus 

3  also  a  common  accompaniment.      After  treatment  with  alkali  this 

layer  is  stained  bright  yellow  by  zinc  chloride  iodine 

Endosperm.    ,.  The  Aleurone  Cells  (al)  vary  from  less  than  20  to 
40  n  in  diameter. 

2    Starch  Parenchyma   (Fig.  97,  st).    The  thin-walled  cells  contain 
small  polygonal  grains  3-7  ,,  in  diameter.    The  individual  starch  grains 
are  not  distinguishable  from  the  grains  of  rice  and  oats,  and  like  the 
itter  often  occur  in  aggregates  of  various  sizes. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  characteristic  elements  of  darnel  are  the  epidermis  (Fig  9S)  of 

he  glumes  and  palets,  and  the  fungus  layer  (Fig.  98,  /).     The  cross  cells 

(q)    and    starch   grains  (Fig.  97,  ,/)   aid   in   identification,   though   the 

former   may    be    readily  confounded  with  the  corresponding   tissue  of 

barley  and  the  latter  with  the  starch  grains  of  oats.     The  spongy  pare* 

chyma  of  the  flowering  glume  resembles  that  of  barley,  but 

mnguished  from  the  spongy  parenchyma  of  oat  glumes. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


*" 


130 


GRAIN. 


CHESS. 

Chess  (Bromus  secalinus  L.)  is  one  of  the  commonest  weeds  of  grain 
fields,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  and  the  fruit  is  a  common  constituent 
of  un cleaned  grain,  screenings,  and  various  by-products. 

The  fruit  when  invested  by  the  flowering  glume  and  palet  closely 
resembles  darnel,  but  the  awn  of  the  flowering  glume  is  short  or  absent. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Flowering  Glume.  The  structure  throughout  is  much  the  same  as 
in  darnel,  but  the  cells  of  the  outer  epidermis  (Fig.  99)  are  much  more 


FIG.  99.      Chess    (Bromus  FIG.   100.     Chess.      Cross  section  of  outer  portion   of  fruit. 

secalinus).      Outer     epi-  F  pericarp   consists   of    ep,    epicarp,    and    q    cross  cells; 

dermis  of  flowering  glume  S  spermoderm ;    N  perisperm;    E  endosperm  consists  of 

in  surface  view.     Xi6o.  al    aleurone    layer,    and    st    starch   parenchyma.      Xi6o. 

(WlNTON.)  (WlNTON.) 

conspicuously  thick-walled,  and  the  wavy-walled  cells  are  throughout 
much  longer  than  broad.  The  circular  cells  also  have  wavy  walls.  The 
cells  on  the  margins,  interspersed  with  lance-shaped  hairs,  are  the  same 
as  in  darnel. 

Palet.  The  flowering  glume  and  palet  are  similar  in  structure,  but 
the  outer  epidermis  of  the  latter  is  barbed  on  the  keel,  the  stiff  hairs  often 
reaching  45  /*  in  length. 

Pericarp  (Fig.  100,  F\  Fig.  101).  The  pericarp  consists  of  two  layers 
with  rudiments  of  another  layer  in  parts. 

i.  The  Epicarp  Cells  (ep)  are  large,  elongated  polygonal,  and  have 
thin,  non-porous  walls. 


CHESS. 


2.  Mesocarp.    As   a   rule,   the  cross  cells   immediately  underlie   the 
epidermis;   but  occasionally  traces  of  the  mesocarp  are  evident. 

3.  Cross  Cells  (q).     Whether  this  layer  corresponds    with    the  cross 
cells  or  the  tube  cells  of  other  grasses  is  uncertain.     The  tissue  is  made 


FIG.  lor. 


N 


Chess      Bran  coats  in  surface  view,     ep  epicarp;   q  cross  cells;   5  spermoderw; 
N  perisperm;   al  aleurone  cells.      Xi6o.     (WiNTON.) 


up  of  irregular  spongy  parenchyma  cells,  usually  transversely  elongated 
with  large,  round  or  elongated  intercellular  spaces. 

The  Spermoderm  (S)  consists  of  one  layer  of  elongated  brown  cells 
15-20  /j.  wide. 

Perisperm  (N).  This  layer  is  enormously  developed.  As  may  be 
seen  in  cross  section,  the  cells  are  40  /*  thick,  but  the  walls  are  so  swollen 
as  to  almost  entirely  obliterate  the  cavity.  After  soaking  for  some  time 
in  ij  per  cent  soda  solution  they  are  evident  in  surface  view. 

Endosperm,     i.  The  Aleurone  Layer  (al)  is  not  of  especial  interest. 

2.  The  Starch-Parenchyma  (Fig.  100,  st)  is  remarkable  for  the  thick- 
ness of  the  cell- walls  (often  10  /JL)  and  the  elliptical  starch  grains  3-20  /* 
in  diameter.  With  proper  illumination  each  grain  may  be  seen  to  have 
an  elliptical  hilum. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Especially  characteristic  are  the  thick-walled  parenchyma  cells  (Fig. 
loo,  si)  with  elliptical  starch  grains.  The  cross  cells  (Fig.  101,  q)  also 
are  of  diagnostic  importance.  The  epidermis  (Fig.  99)  of  the  flowering 


132  GRAIN. 

glume  is  distinguished  from  that  of  darnel  by  the  bolder  outlines  of  the 
wavy-walled  cells  and  their  greater  length,  as  well  as  by  the  structure 
of  the  circular  cells.  The  hairs  on  the  keels  of  the  palet  are  longer 
than  those  of  darnel. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

VOGL:  Die  wichtigsten  vegetabilischen  Nahrungs-  u.  Genussmittel.    Berlin  u.  Wien, 

1899,  36. 
WINTON:   Anatomic  der  Fruchte  des  Taumellolches  und  der  Roggentrespe.    Ztschr. 

Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm.  1904,  7,  321.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  1903,  165. 


BUCKWHEATS  (Polygonacea). 

Although  buckwheat  and  other  polygonaceous  plants  are  botanically 
widely  removed  from  the  cereals,  the  fruits  of  the  two  families  are  quite 
similar  in  structure,  as  well  as  in  chemical  composition.  In  both,  the 
pericarp  is  thin  and  dry,  and  the  single  seed  consists  of  a  thin  spermoderm, 
a  bulky  endosperm  with  aleurone  and  starch  cells,  and  a  relatively  small 
embryo.  The  following  characters  are  peculiar  to  buckwheats:  (i) 
the  thin  leaf -like  or  colored  perianth,  (2)  the  brown  or  black  pericarp, 
without  hairs,  (3)  the  network  of  homogeneous  threads  remaining  after 
dissolving  the  starch  grains  in  alkali.  The  structure  of  the  spermoderm 
taken  as  a  whole  is  also  characteristic,  although  some  of  the  layers  are 
quite  like  tissues  found  in  the  cereals. 

The  starch  grains  are  of  the  rice  type,  but  they  do  not  occur  in  rounded 
aggregates. 

COMMON    BUCKWHEAT. 

Nearly  all  the  buckwheat  raised  in  Europe  and  America  as  well  as 
the  larger  part  of  that  raised  in  oriental  countries  belongs  to  a  single 
species  (Fagopyrum  esculentum  Mcench),  a  native  of  Central  Asia.  Tar- 
tary  buckwheat  (F.  Tartaricum  Gsert.),  a  less  valuable  species,  is  described 
in  the  following  chapter. 

The  sharply  triangular,  pointed,  dark-brown  or  gray-brown  achenes 
are  5-8  mm.  long  and  3-4  mm.  broad.  Fragments  of  the  calyx  are  often 
attached  to  the  base.  A  nerve  passes  longitudinally  through  the  middle 
of  each  of  the  three  sides.  The  seed  completely  fills  the  pericarp,  but 
is  not  grown  to  it  and  is  readily  separated  by  machinery.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  spermoderm  adheres  closely  to  the  endosperm  and  is  not  en- 


COMMON  BUCKWHEAT. 


'33 


tirely  removed  in  milling.  The  embryo,  with  broad  but  thin  cotyledons, 
is  embedded  in  the  endosperm,  and  is  so  folded  that,  in  cross  section,  it 
is  S-shaped. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp   (Figs.    102   and   103).     Sections    are  cut  after  soaking  for 
some    time   in   water.     Surface   preparations   are   obtained   by  scraping 


FIG.  102.  Buckwheat  (Fagopyrum  esculentum).  Cross  section  of  the  pericarp  at  one 
of  the  angles  showing  the  epicarp,  the  hypoderm  of  sclerenchyma  elements  with  fibro- 
vascular  bundle  (g),  the  brown  parenchyma  (/>),  and  the  inner  layers  of  obliterated 
cells.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 

with  a  scalpel,  after  boiling  for  an  hour  in  ij  per  cent  alkali  to  remove 
a  portion  of  the  brown  coloring  matter. 

*  f . 


FIG.  103.  Buckwheat.  Isolated  elements  of  the  pericarp,  o  epicarp;  p  parenchyma 
(the  upper  group  from  a  bundle);  /  hypoderm  fibers;  ep  inner  epidermis;  sp  spiral 
vessel.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 

i.  The   Epicarp  Cells  (o)  are  elongated,    rounded  quadrilateral  and 
range  up  to  100  /JL  in  length  and  20  ;JL  in  breadth.     Diagonally  extended 


GRAIN. 


pores  on  the  outer  wall,  crossing  those  of  the  inner  wall  at  nearly 
right  angles,  give  the  layer  a  peculiarly  characteristic  latticed  appear- 
ance. Owing  also  to  these  pores  the  radial  walls  appear  indistinctly 
beaded.  On  each  of  the  three  faces  of  the  fruit  the  cells  of  both 
the  epidermis  and  the  hypoderm  are  pinnately  arranged  either  side  of 
the  central  vein,  but  on  the  angles  of  the  fruit  they  are  longitudinally 
extended. 

2.  The  Hypoderm  (/)  consists  of    several  layers  of  short  fibers   (up 
to   150  /j.  long,    10-15  /*  broad),  with  thick  porous  walls.     The  narrow 
cavities  contain  a  brown  substance. 

3.  Brown  Parenchyma  (p).     Only  a  single  thin  layer  of  parenchyma 
is  present  in  the  faces  of  the  pericarp,  but  in  the  angles  there  are  several 
layers.     The  cells  are  either  isodiametric  or  elongated,  with  rather  thick 

0  walls  impregnated  with  a  brown  sub- 
stance.  This  same  substance  is  also 
found  in  the  other  layers,  though  in 
smaller  amount.  Through  this  tissue 
pass  the  bundles  of  the  veins. 

4.  An    Endocarp  (ep),    for  the  most 
part  of  large,  elongated,  mostly  pointed 
cells,    with   somewhat    thickened    walls, 
FIG.  104.    Buckwheat.    Cross  section  covers  the  inner  surface. 

of  outer  portion   of  seed.      Spermo-  _.  ,  . 

derm   consists   of  o  outer  epidermis,  bpermoderm      (rigs.      104    and     105). 

m  spongy  parenchyma,  and  ep  inner  After    the    remOval    of    the    pericarp    the 
epidermis;     endosperm     consists     of  r 

K  aleurone  cells  and  E  starch  cells,  seed  is   seen  to  be  covered  with   a  thin, 

yellowish  membrane,  which  is  best  ex- 
amined in  cold  dilute  alkali.  The  three  superimposed  layers  are  easily 
found  on  careful  focusing. 

1.  Outer  Epidermis   (o).     Wavy-walled   cells,   isodiametric   or  some- 
what elongated,  form  a  conspicuous  epidermal  layer. 

2.  Spongy  Parenchyma  (m).     Cells  of  various  shapes,  with  numerous 
round  intercellular  spaces,  underlie  the  epidermis,  and  with  it  form  a 
most    valuable   means    of   identification.     Greenish    or  ..brownish-yellow 
cell  contents  render  this  layer  particularly  distinct. 

3.  An  Inner  Epidermis  (ep)  of  elongated,  thin- walled  cells,  is  readily 
found  after  the  addition  of  cold  dilute  alkali. 

Endosperm  (Figs.  104  and  105).  i.  Aleurone  Cells  (K)  similar  to 
those  of  the  true  cereals  form  an  outer  coat  one  cell  layer  thick.  In 
cross  section  the  cells  are  seen  to  be  somewhat  tangentially  extended. 


COMMON  BUCKWHEAT. 


'35 


Surface  mounts  show  that  the  cells  are  exceedingly  variable  both  in  size 
and  wall  thickness. 

2.  Starch  Parenchyma  (E).     Cells  of  large  size  with  thin  walls  contain 
the  densely  crowded,  polygonal  starch  grains   (Fig.   106).     Isolated  cells 


•P- 


FIG.   105.     Buckwheat.     Bran    coats   in    surface    view.     Spermoderm    consists   of   o   outer 
epidermis,  m  spongy  parenchyma,  and  ep  inner  epidermis;    K  aleurone  cells.       X3oo. 

(MOELLER.) 

(Fig.  107)  closely  packed  with  grains  are  the  most  striking  constituents 
of  mill  products.     The  starch  grains  range  from  less  than  2  to  over  15/1 


FIG.  106.     Buckwheat  Starch.     X3oo.     (MOELLER.) 

but  are  commonly  6-12  /*.  They  are  either  round  or  more  commonly 
rounded  polygonal  and  usually  display  a  conspicuous  hilum.  Although 
the  grains  arc  never  united  into  circular  or  elliptical  aggregates,  such  as 
occur  in  rice,  oats,  and  darnel,  two  or  more  of  them  are  often  joined  to 
form  a  rod-like  aggregate.  As  noted  by  Vogl  these  aggregates  are  often 
curiously  constricted,  and  the  contact  surfaces  of  the  individuals  are 
indistinct. 


136 


GRAIN. 


Vogl  also  found  that,  on  treating  the  starch  masses  with  alkali,  there 
was  obtained  a  network  of  homogeneous  threads  (Fig.  108),  not  beaded 


FIG.  107.     Buckwheat.     Starch  grains  in  masses.     Xno.     (LEACH.) 

as  in  Setaria  and  Panicum,  corresponding  to  the  outline  of  the  dissolved 
grains.  This  phenomenon  is  also  common  to  various  species  of  Poly- 
gonum  and  Rum-ex  and  is  probably  characteristic  of  the  entire  family. 


FIG.  108.     Buckwheat.     Starch  cells  of  endosperm  FIG.   IOQ.      Buckwheat.      Longitudinal 

showing   at    the    left    network  of    homogeneous  section   of   cotyledon,     o   epidermis; 

threads  remaining   after    treatment  with    alkali.  p  mesophyl;    g  procambium    or    in- 

(VoGL.)  cipient  bundle.     (MOELLER.) 

Embryo  (Fig.  109).  As  appears  in  cross  section,  the  two  cotyledons 
consist  of  a  mesophyl  (p)  between  an  outer  and  inner  epidermis,  and  the 
elongated  cells  of  the  procambium  (g)  or  incipient  bundle  running  through 
the  mesophyl. 

The  Mesophyl  consists  of  small,  polygonal  cells  •  with  protoplasmic 
contents,  the  epidermis,  of  somewhat  larger  and  more  sharply  defined 
cells  of  more  or  less  elongated  form. 


COMMON  BUCKWHEAT.  137 


DIAGNOSIS. 

The  whole  grain  is  esteemed  in  Europe  as  a  poultry  food.  It  is  seldom 
ground  with  the  hulls. 

Decorticated  Products.  Buckwheat  Flour  is  employed,  especially  in 
America,  for  making  griddle  cakes.  To  the  touch  it  has  a  peculiar  harsh- 
ness quite  unlike  the  soft  feeling  of  wheat  and  rye  flour.  It  consists  of 
parenchyma  cells  packed  with  starch  grains  (Fig.  107),  isolated  starch 
grains  (Fig.  106),  and  occasional  fragments  of  the  spermoderm  (Fig.  105). 

The  individual  starch  grains  are  much  like  those  of  oats,  rice,  and 
darnel,  but  they  are  never  united  into  rounded  aggregates.  They  are 
distinguished  from  Setaria  and  Panicum  starch  by  the  network  of  homo- 
geneous threads  left  after  treatment  with  alkali  (Fig.  107).  The  rod- 
shaped  and  constricted  aggregates  are  characteristic.  Of  greatest  value 
in  diagnosis  are  the  fragments  of  the  spermoderm  (Fig.  105),  consist- 
ing of  the  wavy-walled  cells  of  the  outer  epidermis,  the  spongy  paren- 
chyma with  greenish  cell-contents  and  the  elongated  cells  of  the  inner 
epidermis. 

Buckwheat  flour  is  often  adulterated  with  cheaper  flour.  Of  107 
samples  examined  in  1900  by  the  author,  26  contained  wheat  flour  or 
wheat  middlings,  9  maize  flour,  and  9  both  wheat  and  maize  flour. 

Prepared  or  Self-raising  Buckwheat  Flour  are  names  applied  in 
America  to  griddle-cake  preparations  containing  such  proportions  of  salt 
and  baking-powder  that  they  may  be  prepared  for  cooking  by  simply 
mixing  with  water  or  milk.  The  flour  in  these  preparations  is  either 
pure  buckwheat  flour  or  various  mixtures  of  buckwheat,  wheat,  maize, 
rice,  and  barley  flour.  If,  as  is  usually  the  case,  the  baking-powder  used 
contains  corn-starch  as  a  filler,  traces  of  this  starch  will  be  found  under 
the  microscope. 

Buckwheat  Grits  is  a  valuable  food  for  the  common  people  in  Russia 
and  some  oriental  countries.  It  contains  the  same  elements  as  the  flour. 

By-products.  Buckwheat  Middlings,  a  by-product  from  the  manu- 
facture of  the  flour,  is  readily  identified  by  the  tissues  of  the  spermoderm 
(Fig.  105).  It  is  used  as  a  cattle  food  and  also  as  an  adulterant  of  spices. 

Buckwheat  Hulls  have  little  food  value,  but  make  good  packing. 
They  have  been  extensively  ground  for  adulterating  black  pepper.  The 
latticed  epicarp  cells  (Fig.  103,  o)  and  the  hypoderm  fibers  (/)  are  of  chief 
value  in  identification. 


138  GRAIN. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bohmer,  (6,  23);  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (10, 
16);  Harz  (18);  Leach  (25);  Mace  (26);  Moeller  (29);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34); 
Schimper  (37);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (43,  45); 
Wittmack  (10). 

Also  see  Bibliography  of  Wheat,  pp.  72  and  73. 

HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:     Reis-  und  Buchweizenstarke.     Chem.  Ztg.   1894,  18,  No.  33. 
MEYER,  ARTHUR:    Arch.  d.  Pharm.  1883,  912. 
TSCHIRCH:     Starkemehlanalysen.     Archiv.  d.  Pharm.  1885,  23,  521. 

TARTARY    BUCKWHEAT. 

Indian  wheat,  Tartary  buckwheat,  or  duckwheat  (Fagopyrum  Tartari- 
cum  Gaertn.)  is  known  chiefly  in  the  East.  In  Piedmont  and  some  other 
cold,  mountainous  regions,  it  has  been  grown  to  some  extent,  as  it  ripens 
earlier  than  the  common  sort. 

The  grains  are  dull  brown  and  have  a  marked  longitudinal  groove 
running  through  each  of  the  three  faces. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp,  i.  The  Epicarp  Cells  are  isodiametric  or  somewhat  elonga- 
ted with  thin,  non-porous  walls.  On  the  inner  surface  they  are  convex, 
fitting  into  corresponding  concave  depressions  of  the  next  layer. 

2.  Hypoderm.     In  the  outer  two  or  more  layers  the  fibers  are  trans- 
versely extended,  but  in  the  inner  layer  they  are  arranged  longitudinally. 

3.  The  Brown  Parenchyma  is  much  like  that  of  common  buckwheat. 

4.  An  Endocarp  of  thin-walled  cells  completes  the  pericarp. 

The  Spermoderm,  Endosperm,  and  Embryo  are  the  same  as  in  common 
buckwheat. 

BLACK    BINDWEED. 

Of  the  several  common  weeds  belonging  to  the  genus  Polygonum, 
black  bindweed  or  wild  buckwheat  (P.  Convolvulus  L.)  is  the  most  trouble- 
some. Although  a  native  of  the  Old  World,  it  thrives  luxuriantly  in  the 
grain  fields  of  the  United  States,  and  the  seed  is  the  chief  impurity  of  Ameri- 
can wheat.  Samples  of  wheat  screenings  from  the  leading  wheat-growing 
states  of  the  Union  contained  from  8  to  27  per  cent  of  this  seed. 

The  jet  black,  lusterless,  triangular  achenes  are  3  mm.  long  and  the  faces 
are  2  mm.  broad  (Fig.  no,  //).  Since  the  achenes  at  maturity  are  closely 


BLACK  BINDWEED.  I39 

invested  by  the  calyx  (/),  both  are  harvested  together;   but  during  thresh- 
ing, screening,  and  transportation,  the  dry  calyx,  as  a  rule,  is  removed 


n 


— -c 

Epi 
Mes 

B 


FIG.   no.     Black  Bindweed  (Polygonum  FiG.   in.     Black  Bindweed.     Cross  section  of 

Convolvulus).      I     Fruit    with    calyx.  fruit.     C  calyx;    Epi   epicarp;    Mes  meso- 

II   Fruit  without  calyx.    X5-     (WiN-  carp;    B  fibro-vascular   bundle;    5  spermo- 

TON.)  derm;    E  endosperm;    Em  embryo.      Xi6. 

(WlNTON.) 

from  the  achenes,  and  the  pericarp,  splitting  at  the  angles,  is  often  sepa- 
rated from  the  seed. 

The  seed  consists  of  a  thin,  colorless  spermoderm,  a  starchy  endosperm, 
and  a  minute  embryo  situated  in  a  longitudinal  groove  of  the  endosperm 
at  one  of  the  angles. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Calyx  (Figs,  in  and  112,  C).  The  three  outer  lobes  of  the  five-  to 
six-lobed  calyx  are  broader  than  the  others  and  are  slightly  keeled  at  the 
angles. 

1.  Outer  Epidermis  (Fig.  112,  aep).     Distributed  over  the  outer  surface 
are  numerous  characteristic  blunt-conical  or  nipple-shaped  papillae  from 
30-60  /JL  in  diameter  at  the  base,  each  of  which  is  marked  with  longitudinal 
striations.      These  papillae,  as  may  be  seen  in  transverse  section,  are 
the  outer  portions  of  the  epidermal  cells,  the  inner  portions  forming  a 
continuous  cell  layer. 

2.  Mesophyl  (m).     Between  the  outer  and  inner  epidermis  are  several 
layers  of  chlorophyl-containing  parenchyma  with  intercellular  spaces. 

3.  Inner  Epidermis  (iep).     Elongated  cells  with  more  or  less  wavy 
outline  and  varying  in  length  up  to  200  /j.  and  in  breadth  from  15-45  /<, 
interspersed  here  and  there  with  stomata,  make  up  the  inner  coat  of  the 
calyx. 

Pericarp  (Figs.  113-115).     The  black  hulls  or  shells  of  the  grain  should 
be  studied  in  cross  section  and  in  surface  preparations,  the  latter  being 


140 


GRAIN. 


freed  from  the  black  coloring  matter  by  warming  on  the  slide  with  caustic 
alkali,  or  better  by  boiling  for  half  an  hour  with  i  J  per  cent  sodium  hydrate 
solution  as  in  the  determination  of  crude  fiber. 

i.  Epicarp  (epi).     Cross  sections  show  that  the  cells  are  about  100  tj. 
in  radial  diameter  on  the  sides  of  the  achenes  and  are  still  longer  at  the 


aep 


in 


"W 


epi 


FlG.  112.  Black  Bindweed.  Cross  section  of  calyx  and  angle  of  fruit.  C  calyx  consists 
of  aep ^ outer  epidermis,  m  mesophyl,  and  iep  inner  epidermis;  F  pericarp  consists  of 
epi  epicarp  with  w Denticular  wart,  p  mesocarp,  and  end  endocarp;  5  spermoderm  con- 
sists of  ae  outer  epidermis,  q  cross  cells,  and  ie  inner  epidermis;  E  endosperm  consists 
of  al  aleurone  cells  and  5  starch  cells.  Xi6o.  (WiNTON.) 

angles.  The  inner  wall  is  thin,  but  the  outer  wall  and  the  outer  portions 
of  the  curiously  wrinkled  radial  walls  are  strongly  thickened.  Proceeding 
from  the  inner  wall  outward,  the  radial  walls  increase  in  thickness  until 
the  much-branched  cell  cavity  is  almost  obliterated.  On  the  surface 
are  numerous  warts  from  15-30  /j.  in  diameter,  into  each  of  which  a  narrow 
branch  of  the  cell  cavity  passes. 

Surface  preparations  of  the  pericarp  with  the  outer  surface  upper- 


BLACK  BINDWEED. 


141 


most  clearly  show  that  the  warts  are  arranged  in  irregular  longitudinal 
rows,  also  that  the  epicarp  cells  at  the  surface  are  sinuous  in  outline 


FIG.  113.  Black  Bindweed.  Epicarp  in 
surface  view  showing  wavy  outline  of 
cells  and  cuticular  warts.  Xi6o. 

(WlNTON.) 


FIG.  114.  Black  Bindweed.  Tangential 
section  of  epicarp.  Xi6o.  (WIN- 
TON.) 


(Fig.   113),   but    further    inward   gradually   approach    a    circular   form 
(Fig.  114). 


FIG.  115.     Black   Bindweed.     Surface    view   of   pericarp   from    below,     epi  epicarp;     hy 
hypoderm;    p  mesocarp  with  g  bundle.     Xi6o.     (WINTON.) 

As  may  be  seen  in  preparations  of  the  pericarp  with  the  inner  surface 
uppermost,  the  contour  of  the  inner  cell-walls  of  the  epicarp  is,  like  the 
outer  wall,  sinuous  in  outline  (Fig.  115,  epi).  . 


142 


GRAIN. 


2.  Hypoderm  (Figs.  112  and  115,  hy).     Beneath  the  epicarp  is  a  layer 
of  slightly  elongated  parenchyma  cells  somewhat  larger  than  the  cells  of 
the  mesocarp. 

3.  Mesocarp  (p).    At  the  angles  of  the  fruit  this  layer  is  somewhat 
thicker  than  on  the  sides.     The  cells  of  the  ground  tissue  are  thin- walled 
and  isodiametric,  those  of  the  inner  layers  being  more  or  less  obliterated 
in   the   ripe   fruit.     Six  primary,  sparingly   branched   vascular   bundles 
pass  longitudinally   through  the  ground  tissue  of  the  mesocarp,  one  in 
each  angle  and  one  in  each  of  the  faces. 

4.  Endocarp  (Fig.  112,  end}.     Like  the  inner  mesocarp,  the  cells  are 
usually  obliterated  in  the  mature  seed  and  are  seldom  evident  either  in 
cross  section  or  in  surface  view. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  112, 5;  Fig.  116).     Three  coats,  analogous  to  those 
of  buckwheat,  but  differing  in  form,  make  up  the  spermoderm. 


ae— 


FlG.   1 1 6.     Black  Bindweed.     Seed  in  surface  view,     ae  outer  epidermis,  q  cross  cells,  and 
ie  inner  epidermis  of  spermoderm;    al  aleurone  cells.      Xi6o.     (WlNTON.) 

1.  Epidermis  (ae).     As  in  buckwheat,  the  epidermal  cells  are  wavy 
in  outline;  but  they  are  strongly  elongated,  whereas  in  buckwheat  they 
are  nearly  isodiametric. 

2.  Cross  Cells  (q).     Most   of  the  cells  of  this  layer  are   elongated, 
resembling  the  tube  cells  of  cereals;  but  short  cells  of  more  irregular  shape 
also  occur,  particularly  near  the  base  and  apex.     In  no  part  do  they  form 
a  spongy  parenchyma  with  circular  intercellular  spaces  like  that  of  buck- 
wheat. 


BLACK  BINDWEED.  143 

3.  Inner  Epidermis  (ie).  The  coat  consists  of  thin- walled,  elongated 
elements. 

Endosperm  (Figs,  in  and  112,  E).  None  of  the  elements  are  dis- 
tinguishable from  those  of  buckwheat,  either  in  form  or  size. 

1.  Aleurone  Cells  (Figs.   112   and    116,   al)  are  of  variable  size  and 
irregular  shape. 

2.  Starch  Cells  (Fig.  112,  s).     In  the  outer  layers  the  cells  are  tangen- 
tially  elongated;   further  inward,  they  are  radially  elongated  and  of  large 
size.     The  polygonal  or  rounded  grains  vary  in  diameter  from  3-12  /*. 

As  in  buckwheat  and  other  species  of  Polygonum  and  Rumext  a  network 
of  homogeneous  threads,  corresponding  to  the  outline  of  the  starch  grains, 
remains  behind  after  dissolving  out  the  starch  in  alkali. 

The  Embryo,  consisting  of  an  elongated  radicle  and  two  oblong  coty- 
ledons, may  be  conveniently  isolated  by  soaking  the  seed  in  ij  per  cent 
caustic  soda  solution  for  some  hours  until  the  starch  is  removed. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Ground  screenings  containing  a  large  percentage  of  this  seed  has 
been  sold  in  the  United  States  as  a  fodder  ("Germ  Middlings, "  etc.),  and 
has  been  used  as  an  adulterant  of  ground  pepper.  Fragments  of  the 
seed,  particularly  the  black  hulls,  are  frequently  encountered  as  an  acci- 
dental impurity  in  bran  and  other  by-products. 

Characteristic  of  this  fruit  are  the  papillae  on  the  outer  epidermis 
(Fig.  112,  aep)  of  the  calyx,  also  the  epicarp  (Fig.  113)  with  sinuous  cell- 
walls  and  rows  of  warts. 

The  outer  epidermal  cells  (Fig.  116,  ae)  of  the  spermoderm  are 
sinuous  in  outline,  like  those  of  buckwheat,  but  are  commonly  more 
elongated. 

Although  the  cross  cells  (q)  are  morphologically  the  same  as  the  spongy 
parenchyma  of  buckwheat,  they  resemble  more  nearly  in  structure  the 
tube  cells  of  Jhe  cereals. 

The  starch  grains,  also  the  network  of  homogeneous  threads  obtained 
after  treatment  with  alkali,  are  characteristic  of  the  family,  not  of  the 
species. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

KRAUS:    Pringsh.  Jahrb.  f.  wissensch.  Bot.   1866,  5,  83. 

VILLIERS  ET  COLLIN:    Traite  des  Alterations  et  Falsifications.     Paris,  1900,  103. 
WINTON:    Ueber  amerikanische  Weizen-Ausreuter.     Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm. 
1903,  6,  433.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1902,  339. 


144  GRAIN. 


OTHER   POLYGONACEOUS   SEEDS. 

A  number  of  European  and  American  species  of  Polygonum  and 
Rumex  are  troublesome  weeds. 

The  black  or  brown  seeds  are  either  triangular  or  flattened,  rough 
or  more  commonly  lustrous. 

The  anatomical  structure  of  most  of  them  resembles  that  of  black 
bindweed.  The  epicarp  cells  in  surface  view  are  commonly  sinuous 
with  or  without  cuticular  warts;  the  starch  grains  polygonal,  of  the  buck- 
wheat type. 


WEED   SEEDS. 

Of  the  weeds  which  infest  grain  fields,  some  are  so  low-growing  that 
they  escape  cutting  with  the  grain,  others  ripen  their  seed  before  or  after 
the  grain  is  harvested,  and  others  still,  including  some  of  the  rankest 
weeds,  have  such  small  seeds  that  they  do  not  appreciably  add  to  the 
weight  of  the  grain.  Of  the  seeds  harvested  with  the  grain  by  far  the  larger 
part,  being  larger  or  smaller  than  the  grain,  are  separated  as  screenings, 
so  that  the  cleaned  grain  is  nearly,  although  never  quite,  free  of  foreign 
seeds. 

European  Screenings.  According  to  Vogl  the  commonest  weed  seeds 
of  European  grain  are  Agrostemma  Githago  L.  (cockle)  and  legumes, 
although  the  following  occur  in  considerable  quantities:  Vaccaria  parvi- 
flora  Moench  (cow  herb) ;  Species  of  Galium  (bed  straws) ;  Bijora  radians 
M.  B.j  Bromus  secalinus  L.  (chess);  Lolium  temulentum  L.  (darnel); 
Avena  jatua  L.  (wild  oats);  Centaurea  Cyanus  L.  (corn  flower);  Papaver 
RhoeasL.  (corn  poppy);  Lithospermum  arvenseL,.;  Species  of  A  triplex; 
Convolvulus  arvensis  L.  (small  bindweed);  Species  of  Polygonum,  espe- 
cially P.  Convolvulus  L.  (black  bindweed);  Melampyrum  arvense  L.  (cow 
wheat);  Alectorolophus  hirsutus  Allion;  Delphinium  Consolida  L.  (lark- 
spur); Ranunculus  arvensis  L.  (buttercup);  etc.  Fruits  of  species  Setaria 
(foxtail)  and  some  umbelliferous  plants,  seeds  of  cruciferous  plants,  etc., 
occur  only  in  small  amounts. 

In  a  sample  of  wheat  screenings  from  one  of  the  largest  steam  mills 
near  Vienna,  Vogl  found:  broken  wheat  41.7  per  cent,  cockle  42.7  per 
cent,  legumes  6.4  per  cent,  bed  straws  3.3  per  cent,  A  triplex  3.1  per  cent, 
Polygonum  species  i.i  per  cent,  miscellaneous  0.6  per  cent;  while  in 
another  sample  he  found  broken  wheat,  etc.,  42.1  per  cent,  cockle  29.7 
per  cent,  legumes  n.i  per  cent,  Bijora  radians  4.9  per  cent,  bed  straws 
3.5  per  cent,  Polygonum  species  2.0  per  cent,  cow  wheat  2.5  per  cent, 
cruciferous  species  1.4  per  cent,  miscellaneous  2.3  per  cent. 

A  sample  of  so-called  "tares"  consisted  chiefly  of  legumes  with 

US 


146  WEED  SEEDS. 

small  amounts  of  broken  wheat,  cockle,  etc.  One  known  as  "  chicken  or 
small  wheat"  consisted  largely  of  small  wheat  kernels  mixed  with  chess 
(4.3  per  cent)  and  other  fruits  and  seeds,  including  three  kernels  of  foxtail. 

The  foreign  matter  in  a  sample  of  uncleaned  wheat  was  chess,  cockle 
and  small  amounts  of  other  impurities,  including  two  fruits  of  black  bind- 
weed. 

American  Screenings.  The  chief  wheat-growing  regions  of  America 
may  be  divided  into  three  sections:  First,  the  spring  wheat  section  of 
the  middle  west,  including  Kansas,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Missouri,  Illinois, 
southern  Nebraska,  southern  Michigan,  and  the  adjoining  states  to 
the  south;  second,  the  winter  wheat  section  of  the  middle  northwest, 
including  the  states  of  Minnesota,  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Iowa, 
Wisconsin,  northern  Nebraska,  and  Canada;  third,  the  Pacific  section, 
including  the  states  of  California,  Oregon,  and  Washington. 

Botanical  analyses  of  screenings  from  the  first  two  of  these  sections 
are  given  on  p.  147. 

From  these  it  appears  that  the  screenings  of  the  Old  and  New  World 
are  quite  different  at  the  present  time.  Of  the  two  chief  constituents 
of  European  screenings,  cockle  occurs  in  small  amount  and  leguminous 
seeds  not  at  all  in  the  American  product,  while  the  three  leading  seeds 
of  American  screenings  (black  bindweed,  green  foxtail,  and  yellow  fox- 
tail), although  introduced  from  Europe,  are  of  minor  importance  in 
their  native  land.  Chess  is  often  met  with  in  considerable  amount  on 
both  continents. 

No  analyses  of  screenings  from  the  Pacific  coast  are  available,  but 
it  is  well  known  that  the  product  differs  markedly  in  constitution  from 
that  of  the  East. 

Hilgard  l  in  1890  stated  that  in  California  all  of  the  species  of  Poly- 
gonum  excepting  P.  aviculare  were  almost  unknown,  and  chess,  although 
found  here  and  there,  had  failed  to  gain  a  foothold  as  a  weed. 

Darnel  (Lolium  temulentum  L.)  and  wild  oats  (A vena  jatua  L.)  were 
named,  however,  as  serious  pests  in  the  California  wheat  fields. 

Uses  of  Screenings.  The  seeds  of  charlock  are  separated  in  large 
quantities  from  the  screenings  of  the  spring  wheat  section  of  the  United 
States,  and  are  used  as  a  substitute  for  true  mustard.  It  is  probable 
that  some  of  the  samples  described  in  the  table  on  p.  147  represent  the 
residue  after  this  separation. 

Screenings  are  particularly  adapted  for  poultry  food,  as  poultry  pick 

1  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Report,  1890,  p.  238. 


SEEDS. 


147 


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148  WEED  SEEDS. 

out  the  valuable  seeds  one  by  one,  avoiding  any  that  are  distasteful. 
They  are  also  used  for  feeding  sheep,  swine,  and  other  farm  animals. 
In  Chicago,  New  York,  and  some  other  grain  centers,  ordinary  screenings 
are  separated  into  two  products,  one  consisting  largely  of  broken  and 
shrunken  wheat,  the  other  of  weed  seeds,  notably  black  bindweed,  green 
foxtail  and  yellow  foxtail.  The  weed  seeds  are  made  into  proprietary 
cattle  foods  sold  under  such  names  as  "germ  middlings,"  "seed  meal," 
etc.,  and  are  used  also  as  adulterants. 

EXAMINATION  OF  SCREENINGS  AND  PRODUCTS  OF  SCREENINGS. 

Samples  of  unground  screenings  may  be  separated  into  their  con- 
stituents by  sifting  and  careful  sorting.  The  individual  seeds  are  best 
identified  with  the  aid  of  a  standard  collection  (see  p.  u). 

Microscopic  examination  coupled  with  determinations  of  the  proxi- 
mate constituents  is  sufficient  for  the  identification  of  mill  products  of 
screenings,  and  also  for  the  detection  of  weed  seeds  in  various  cereal 
products,  spices,  etc. 

Seeds  of  graminaceous  and  polygonaceous  weeds  are  described  with 
the  cereals  (pp.  118-132)  and  buckwheats  (pp.  138-144).  The  following 
belong  to  other  families. 


CARYOPHYLLACEOUS    SEEDS 

(Caryophyllacece) , 

COCKLE. 

One  of  the  chief  impurities  in  European  grain  is  the  seed  of  cockle 
(Agrostemma  Githago  L.).  This  seed  is  also  found  in  American  wheat, 
but  in  smaller  amount  than  the  fruit  of  black  bindweed,  green  foxtail, 
and  yellow  foxtail. 

The  black  or  dark-brown  campylotropous  seeds  are  globular-kidney- 
shaped,  resembling  a  rolled-up  caterpillar  (Fig.  117).  Rows  of  stout 
warts  arranged  in  semicircular  lines  about  the  hilum  are  evident  even  to 
the  naked  eye  and  especially  to  the  sense  of  touch.  The  long,  yellow- 
green  embryo  forms  a  ring  about  the  pure  white,  mealy  endosperm. 

Cockle  is  an  especially  undesirable  impurity  in  grain,  as  it  contains 
a  poisonous  principle  known  as  "sapotoxin. " 


COCKLE. 


149 


HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm.     i.  Outer  Epidermis  (Fig.  118,  0;    Fig.  119).     Highly 
characteristic  of  cockle  are  the  large,  more  or  less  elongated  (up  to  600  p 


FIG.  117.  Cockle  (A gro- 
stemma  Githago). 
Natural  size  %  and 
enlarged.  (NOBBE.) 


FIG.  1 1 8.  Cockle.  Cross  section  of  outer  portion  of  seed. 
Spermoderm  consists  of  o  outer  epidermis,  p  parenchyma, 
and  e  inner  epidermis;  E  endosperm  consists  of  thin-walled 
cells  containing  st  starch  aggregates.  X  1 60.  (MOELLER.) 


long)  epidermal  cells,  with  enormously  thickened,  deeply  sinuous,  brown 
walls.    These  cells  form  humps,  covered  on  the  outer  surface  with  numer- 


FlG.  119.     Cockle.     Outer  epidermis  of  spermoderm  in  surface  view.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

ous  fine  warts.     They  contain  a  brown  substance  which  is  not  removed 
by  dilute  alkali  even  on  boiling. 

2.  Parenchyma  (Figs.  118  and  120,  p).     Beneath  the  epidermis  are 
one  or  more  layers  of  parenchyma  cells  with  somewhat  thickened,  brown 


WEED  SEEDS. 


walls.    These,  like  the  cells  of  the  epidermis,  are  more  or  less  transversely 
elongated. 

3.  Reticulated   Cells  (e).    A  layer  of  colorless,  isodiametric  polygonal 
cells  with  delicate  reticulations  adjoins  the  endosperm.     Some  authors 


€— 


FIG.  120.     Cockle.     Inner  layers  of  spermoderm  in  surface  view,     p  parenchyma;   e  inner 
epidermis.      Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

describe  this  layer  as  the  inner  epidermis  of  the  spermoderm;  Vogl, 
however,  regards  it  as  perisperm. 

Endosperm  (Fig.  118,  E).  The  large  cells  contain  highly  character- 
istic, oval-fusiform,  club-shaped,  or,  less  often,  globular  bodies  20-100  a 
in  diameter,  composed  of  minute  (scarcely  measurable)  starch  grains. 
These  starch  bodies  slowly  disintegrate  in  cold  water,  the  liberated  grains 
displaying  lively  molecular  movements. 

The  Embryo  contains  aleurone  grains  of  considerable  size. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  epidermal  layer  often  occurs  as  pieces  of  considerable  size  in 
bran  and  similar  coarse  products.  If  examined  under  a  lens  or  held 


COW  HERB.     SOAP  WORT.  151 

with  a  needle  and  scraped  with  a  scalpel,  the  rough  surface  (Fig.  117) 
is  very  evident.  Under  the  microscope,  a  glance  suffices  for  the  identi- 
fication of  this  remarkable  tissue  (Fig.  119).  The  coloring  matter.is  little 
acted  on  by  alkali.  Equally  striking  are  the  starch  masses  (Fig.  118,  st) 
of  the  endosperm. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bohmer  (6,  10,  23);  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16); 
Harz  (18);    Mace  (26);    Moeller  (29);    Schimper  (37);    Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40); 
Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (45);  Wittmack  (10). 
BENECKE:  Ueber  den  Nachweis  des  Samens  der  Kornrade  (Agrostemma  Githago  L.) 

in  Mahlprodukten.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  31,  407. 
KRUSKAL:   Ueber  Agrostemma  Githago.     Arb.  d.  pharmakol.  Inst.  Dorpat.  1891,    6, 

116. 

LEHMANN:    Arch.  Hyg.  1893,  19>  I04- 
MEYER,  A.:    Mikroskopischer  Nachweis  von  Radenmehl  in  Getreidemehlen.     Han- 

noversche  Monatsschrift  "Wider  die  Nahrungsfalscher, "  1880,  Heft  X. 
PETERMANN:    Sur  la  presence  des  graines  de  Lychnis  Githago  (nielle)  dans  les  farines. 

Ann.  chim.  phys.  1880,  19,  243. 

COW    HERB. 

The  globular  seeds  of  Vaccaria  parvi flora  Moench  (Saponaria  Vac- 
caria  L.)  are  a  common  impurity  of  European  wheat. 

In  general  structure  they  resemble  cockle,  but  are  distinguished  by 
the  more  uniform  height  of  the  epidermal  cells  (Fig.  121)  and  especially 
by  the  absence  of  papilla?  on  these  cells. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (45). 

SOAPWORT. 

Soapwort,  or  bouncing  bet  (Saponaria  officinalis  L.),  a  common  road- 
side weed  with  a  handsome  flower,  has  a  roughened,  dark  brown  seed 
smalle.  than  cockle  (1-1.5  mm.)>  but  closely  resembling  it  in  other  re- 
spects. 

The  wavy  epidermal  cells  are  not  warty. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
HARZ:  Samenkunde,  p.  1081. 


152 


WEED  SEEDS. 
SPURREY. 


The  seeds  of  common  spurrey  (Spergula  arvensls  L.)  often  occur  in 
linseed-cake  and  other  concentrated  feeds. 


FIG.  121.     Cow  Herb  (Vaccaria  parviflora) .      Outer  epidermis  of  spermoderm  in  surface 

view.     (MOELLER.) 

They  are  1-1.5  mm-  broad,  circular  in  outline,  and  slightly  flattened. 
The  seed  itself  is  dark  brown,  but  is  encircled 
by  a  narrow  wing  of  a  straw  color. 

This    seed    is    readily    identified    under    the 
microscope    by   the  curious    club-shaped,  warty 
bodies   on   the   outer   surface,    which    are    but 
FIG.  122.    Spurrey  (Sper-    modified  epidermal  cells  (Fig.  123).      The  other 
urarsTzritd^nkrgel     epidermal  cells  are  sinuous  in  outline  like  those 
(NOBBE.)  Of   cockle  and   many  other  seeds  of  the    same 

family  (Fig.  124). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bohmer  (23);   Harz  (18). 

RANUNCULACEOUS    SEEDS 

{Ranunculacetz}. 

This  family  includes  a  number  of  weeds,  the  seeds  of  which  are  par- 
ticularly objectionable  ingredients  of  grain  because  of  their  poisonous 
constituents. 


BUTTERCUP  FRUIT. 


'S3 


Nearly  all  the  representatives  of  the  family  have  flowers  with  several 
or  many  pistils  ripening  either  into  single-seeded  achenes  or  several- 
seeded  pods. 


FIG.  123.  Spurrey.  Cross  section  of  seed  show- 
ing e  outer  epidermis  of  spermoderm  with  p  out- 
growths from  the  centers  of  the  cells.  (CoL- 
LIN  and  PERROT.) 


FIG.  124.  Spurrey.  Epidermis  of 
spermoderm  in  surface  view.  (COL- 
LIN  and  PERROT.) 


The  brief  descriptions  which  follow  are  based  on  Senft's  valuable 
paper,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred  for  further  details. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

SENFT:  Die  Bestandtheile  des  Ausreuters  aus  der  Familie  der  Ranunculaceen.    Pharm. 
Praxis.  1902,  1,  65. 

BUTTERCUP   FRUIT. 

Of  the  several  species  of  Ranunculus  infesting  cultivated  fields,  the 
fruit  of  only  one  (R.  arvensis  L.)  is  here  described,  although  those  of 
the  other  species  are  very  similar  in  microscopic  structure. 

The  achenes  (Fig.  125)  are  5-6  mm.  long,  i  mm.  thick,  keeled,  and 
have  a  blunt  beak  and  tapering  base.  On  the  flattened  inner  side 
they  are  prickly. 

Fruits  of  other  species  are  shown  in  Fig.  126. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  Pericarp  consists  of  four  layers:  (i)  The  epicarp  of  yellow-brown 
cells  extended  into  papillae;  (2)  parenchyma  forming  a  single  layer  of 
tangentially  elongated  cells  of  a  yellow-brown  color;  (3)  crystal  cells 
(100  fj.)  with  dark-brown  walls;  (4)  sclerenchyma  fibers  for  the  most 
part  longitudinally  extended  in  the  outer,  transversely  in  the  inner  layers. 


WEED  SEEDS. 


Spermoderm.     (i)  The  outer    layer  has    detached,   rounded,    trans- 
versely elongated,  thick- walled  cells;    (2)  the  inner  layer,  longitudinally 
elongated,  closely  united  cells  with  porous  walls. 

Perisperm.  This  consists  of  more  or  less  quadri- 
lateral cells  with  thick,  porous  walls  and  granular 
contents. 

Endosperm.  The  cells  are  thick  walled  (up  to 
9  /*)  and  contain  aleurone  grains  embedded  in  fat. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:   Harz  (18);  Villiers 
et  Collin  (42).     Also  see  Sen  ft,  loc.  cit. 


ADONIS    FRUIT. 


FIG.  125.  Field  But- 
tercup (Ranunculus 
arvensis).  Seed,  nat- 
ural size  and  en- 

The  compound  fruits  of  Adonis  aestivalis  L.  and 
A.  Flammea  L.  consist  of  numerous  one-seeded,  beaked  achenes. 

The  Pericarp  tissues  are:  (i)  an  epicarp  made  up  of  polygonal  cells 
with  striated  cuticle  and  stomata;  (2)  a  parenchyma  tissue  of  several 
obliterated  layers  containing  small  oxalate  crystal  clusters;  (3)  an  outer 
endocarp  of  several  layers  of  large,  strongly  thickened  sclerenchyma 
cells,  many  of  which  contain  crystals;  and  (4)  an  inner  layer  of  trans- 
versely elongated  fibers. 

T  II  III 


FlG.  126.     Buttercup  Seeds.     I,  Ranunculus  repens;   II,  R.  acris;   III,  R.  sceleratus.     Nat- 
ural size  and  enlarged.     (NoBBE.) 

Spermoderm.     Of   the  three  layers,  the  middle   laye'r,  with   porous, 
distinctly  striated,  yellow  walls,  is  alone  worthy  of  mention. 
The  Endosperm  contains  aleurone  grains  up  to   14  //  long. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Harz  (18);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42).     Also 
see  Sen  ft,  loc.  cit. 


LARKSPUR  SEED,     LOUSE  SEED. 


J55 


LARKSPUR   SEED. 

The  characteristic   tissues   of  the  field  larkspur   (Delphinium  Con- 
solida  L.)  are  the  outer  epidermis  and  third 
layer  of  the  sperm oderm. 

The  outer  epidermal  cells  have  strongly 
thickened  outer  walls  with  minute  warts. 
Curious  fan-like  outgrowths  of  this  layer 
are  highly  characteristic.  The  third  layer  FlG-  I27-  Field  Larkspur  (Del- 

.  .  ,  phinium  Consolida).     Seed,  nat- 

1S    01    longitudinally    elongated,  narrow,    re-        ural    size    and    enlarged;      also 
ticillated  cells  longitudinal  section  showing  the 

embryo.     (NOBBE.) 

The  macroscopic  characters  are  shown 
in  Fig.  127. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Harz  (18);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Villiers 
et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (44).     Also  see  Senft,  loc.  cit. 


LOUSE    SEED. 

In  this  species   (Delphinium  Staphysagria  L.)   the  brown  walls  of 
the   epidermis  of   the   spermoderm    are   strongly   thickened   throughout, 


FIG.   128.     Louse   seed   (Delphinium   Staphysagria}.     Outer  epidermis  of  spermoderm  in 

cross  section.     (MOELLER.) 

and  are  marked  by  beautifully  distinct  concentric  rings.  The  outgrowths 
on  the  cuticle  are  here  finger-shaped,  up  to  9  //  broad  and  30  tu  long  (Fig. 
128). 


156 


WEED  SEEDS. 


BLACK   CARAWAY. 

The  seeds  of  Nigella  arvensis  L.  are  irregularly  triangular,  flattened, 
about  2  mm.  long  and  1.2  mm.  broad.  On  the  surface  they  are  finely 
granular. 

The  characteristic   elements  as  seen  in  surface  view  are  the  large 


FIG.   129.     Black  Caraway  (Nigella  arven-       FIG.   130.     Black  Caraway.     Spiral  cells  of 
sis).     Outer  epidermis  of  spermoderm  in  spermoderm  in  surface  view.     (MOELLER.) 

surface  view.     (MOELLER.) 

(100  fjL  broad)  papillae-like,  dark-brown  epidermal  cells   (Fig.   129)  and 
the  4-5  sided  striated,  cross-cells  of  the  third  layer  (Fig.  130). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See   General  Bibliography,   pp.    671-674:     Harz    (18);    Planchon  et  Collin  (34); 
Vogl  (44).     Also  see  Senft,  loc.  cit. 


MISCELLANEOUS   WEED    SEEDS. 
COW-WHEAT. 

In  many  regions  cow-wheat  (Melampyrum  arvense  L.  order  Scro- 
phulariacece)  is  an  abundant  weed,  and  its  seed  finds  its  way  into  grain. 
The  brown,  oval  seed  (Fig.  131)  is  somewhat  smaller  than  wheat  and 
contains  a  horny  endosperm,  in  the  axis  of  which  is  embedded  the  minute 
embryo. 


COW-WHEAT.    BINDWEED. 


157 


Only  traces  of  the  spermoderm  are  present,  the  bulk  of  the  seed  con- 
sisting of  thick-walled  endosperm  (Figs.  132  and  133).  The  cells  in  the 
outer  layer  are  radially  elongated,  elsewhere  isodiametric,  usually  about 


FIG.  131.  Cow 
Wheat  (Melampy- 
r  urn  arvense). 
Seed,  natural  size 
and  enlarged. 

(NOBBE.) 


FIG.  132.  Cow  Wheat.  Cross 
section  of  spermoderm  (oblit- 
erated cells)  and  endosperm. 
Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  133.  Cow  Wheat.  Outer 
layer  of  endosperm  in  sur- 
face view.  Xioo.  (MoEL- 

LER.) 


50  fj.  in  diameter.     The  double  walls  are  15  /*  thick,  and,  excepting  the 
outer  and  radial  walls  of  the  outer  layer,  are  pierced  by  distinct  pores. 
Oil  globules  and  finely  granular  protoplasm  are  the  only  visible  con- 
tents. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bohmer  (6,  23);    Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16); 
Mace  (26);  Moeller  (29);   Schimper  (37);   Vogl  (43,  45);   Wittmack  (10). 
TSCHIRCH:    Entwicklungsgeschichtliche  Studien.     Schw.  Woch.  Chem.  Pharm.  1897, 
35,  No.  17. 


BINDWEED. 

In  some  regions  the  wild  morning  glory  or  field  bindweed  (Convol- 
vulus arvensis  L.  order  Convolvulacea)  is  a  serious  pest  in  grain  fields, 
the  vines  twining  on  the  grain  stalks,  thus  checking  their  growth  and 
the  seeds  finding  their  way  into  the  threshed  grain. 

The  black  seed  is  the  shape  of  an  orange  segment,  about  4  mm. 
long  and  2.5  mm.  broad  (Fig.  134).  It  consists  of  a  shell-like  spermo- 
derm, a  bulky  endosperm,  and  an  embryo  with  curiously  folded  coty- 
ledons. 


WEED  SEEDS. 


HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm.  Cross-sections  and  surface  mounts,  the  latter  prepared 
after  boiling  the  seed  in  ij  per  cent  alkali,  serve  for  the  study  of  the 
seed  coats. 

1.  Outer  Epidermis.    The  cells  are  of  unequal  height,  the  outer  walls 
often  being  convex,   forming  short  papillae.     In  surface  view  they  are 
polygonal  and  show  dark-brown  contents. 

2.  Cross   Cells.     Exceedingly    narrow,  colorless  cross  cells    arranged 
side  by  side  in  rows  and  often  parqueted  make  up  a  thin  subepidermal 
layer. 

3.  The  Palisade  Cells  forming  the  third  layer  are  about   75  /*  high, 
and  are  of  a  yellow-brown  color  except  for  a  light  line  about  15/1  from  the 


FIG.  134.  Bindweed  (Convolvulus  arven- 
sis) .  a  fruit ;  b  seed,  natural  size ;  c  seed, 
enlarged.  (NoBBE.) 


FIG.  135.  Wild  Carrot  (Daucus  Carota}.  a 
fruit  showing  inner  or  commissural  surface, 
enlarged;  b  showing  outer  surface,  enlarged; 
c  fruit,  natural  size.  (NoBBE.) 


outer  end.  The  narrow  lumen  broadens  somewhat  near  the  light  line. 
These  cells  resemble  the  palisade  cells  of  cottonseed. 

4.  Parenchyma  Cells  form  the  inner  layers  of  the  spermoderm. 

Endosperm.  The  cells  have  very  thick,  more  or  less  mucilaginous 
walls. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  epidermal  cells  with  brown  contents,  the  narrow  cross  cells,  and 
the  palisade  cells  serve  for  the  identification  of  this  seed  in  powder  form. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Harz  (18);    Villiers  et  Collin  (42). 

WILD    CARROT. 

The  fruit  of  the  wild  form  of  Daucus  Carota  L.  (order  Umbellifem) 
is  broadly  ovoid,  1.5-2.5  mm.  long  (Fig.  135).  The  secondary  ribs  are 


HOLLOW  SEED. 


'59 


barbed  with  bristles  over  i  mm.  long,  while  the  inconspicuous  main 
ribs  are  sparingly  hairy.  The  bristles  are  made  up  of  numerous  axially 
arranged,  narrow,  elongated  cells.  Oil  ducts  are  present  only  in  the 
secondary  ribs. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  .Harz  (18). 

HOLLOW   SEED. 

According  to  Vogl,  Bijora  radians  M.  B.  (order  Umbellifem)  is  an 
abundant  weed  in  Austrian  grain  fields,  particularly  in  the  region  south 
of  Vienna,  and  the  fruit  frequently  occurs  in  considerable  amount  in  screen- 
ings. In  one  sample  of  screenings  he  found  4.9  per  cent  of  this  fruit. 

The  pericarp  lacks  conspicuous  ribs  and  has  no  oil  ducts  whatever. 


Pericarp  (Fig.  136) 
tinctive  characters. 


i . 


HISTOLOGY. 

The  Epicarp  (7,  Ep)  is  smooth,  without  dis- 


ttl 

FIG.  136.  Hollow  Seed  (Bijora  radians).  I  pericarp  in  surface  view  showing  Ep  epicarp, 
P  parenchyma,  Q  cross  cells,  and  P  reticulated  cells  (endocarp);  II  stone  cells  from 
sclerenchyma  layer  of  pericarp,  isolated  by  maceration;  ///  endosperm  showing  aleu- 
rone  grains;  IV  aleurone  grains  containing  calcium  oxalate  rosettes.  (VoGL.) 

2.  The  Mesocarp  consists  of  a  dense  sclerenchyma  zone  between  outer 
and  inner  multicellular  parenchyma  layers    (p).     Many  of  the  scleren- 


i6o 


WEED  SEEDS. 


chyma  cells  after  maceration  display  characteristic  side  branches  (//). 
Curious  netted  cells  form  the  innermost  layer  of  the  mesocarp. 

3.  The  Endocarp  consists  of  narrow  cross  cells  (Q). 

The  Spermoderm  lacks  distinctive  elements. 

The  Endosperm  (///)  contains  aleurone  grains  with  conspicuous 
rosettes  of  calcium  oxalate  (IV). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Vogl  (45). 


CORNFLOWER. 

European  grain  fields  are  often  infested  with  the  plants  of  the  corn- 
flower (Centaur  ea  Cyanus  L.  order  Composite). 

The  achene  is  light  gray,  about  4  mm.  long,  and  bears  a  pappus  of 
tan-colored  bristles,  also  about  4  mm.  long  (Fig.  137). 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  Pappus  bristles  are  made  up  of  bundles  of  narrow,  sclerenchyma 
fibers,  some  of  which  are  prolonged  into  upwardly  directed  barbs. 
Pericarp  and  Spermoderm  are  united,  forming  a  leathery  hull. 


FlG.  137.  Cornflower  (Centaur ea  Cyanus). 
a  fruit,  natural  size;  6  fruit,  enlarged;  c 
pappus  bristle,  enlarged.  (NOBBE.) 


FIG.  138.     Cleavers    (Galium    Aparine). 
Fruit,     natural     size     and     enlarged. 

(NOBBE.) 


1.  Epicarp.     The  cells  have  thick,  porous,  sclerenchyma  walls,  and 
are  arranged  end  to  end  in  longitudinal  rows. 

2.  Sclerenchyma  Cells,  similar  to  those  of  the  epicarp  but  of  smaller 
diameter,  form  several  layers. 


CORNFLOWER.     CLEAVERS.  161 

3.  Crystal  Cells.     Beautiful  bar-shaped,  monoclinic  crystals  are  present 
in  great  numbers  in  an  ill-defined  layer  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  scleren- 
chyma  coat.     After  boiling  the  seed  with  i  J  per  cent  alkali,  this  together 
with  the  first  two  layers  may  be  readily  stripped  off  from  the  seed. 

4.  The  Palisade  Cells  of  the  fourth  layer  are  about  75  /z  high  and 
have  thick  brown  walls.     They  separate  from  one  another  on  maceration 
in  alkali. 

5.  Parenchyma.     The  several  layers  of  compressed  cells,  on  treatment 
of  sections  with  Javelle  water,  expand  to  their  normal  size.    Through  this 
tissue  passes  the  raphe. 

The  Endosperm  consists  of  a  single  layer  of  aleurone  cells. 

Embryo.  The  aleurone  grains  are  exceedingly  interesting  because 
of  their  warty  outer  surface.  They  are  globular  or  ellipsoidal,  varying 
to  1 8  jj.  in  length,  and  inclose  numerous  globoids. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  elements  of  value  in  diagnosis  are  the  upwardly  barbed  bristles, 
the  sclerenchyma  layer  with  crystal  cells  on  the  inner  surface,  the  palisade 
cells,  and  the  warty  aleurone  grains  of  the  embryo. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Harz  (18);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42). 

CLEAVERS. 

A  number  of  plants  of  the  genus  Galium  (order  Rubiacece),  known  as 
cleavers,  bed-straws,  etc.,  are  characterized  by  their  slender  square  stems 
provided  with  numerous  small  prickles.  The  fruit  of  G.  Aparine  L.  is 
rounded,  2-3  mm.  in  diameter,  and  hollow  with  a  small  hole  on  one  side 
connecting  with  the  inner  cavity.  The  surface  is  roughened  with  minute 
hooked  hairs  (Fig.  138).  The  thin  pericarp  and  spermoderm  inclose  a 
horny  endosperm  in  which  is  embedded  a  crescent -shaped  embryo.  Other 
species  of  the  same  genus  have  similar  fruits,  although  in  some  species 
they  are  of  smaller  size  and  without  prickles. 

|  HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp  (Fig.  139).  On  boiling  with  i\  per  cent  alkali,  the  pericarp 
readily  separates  as  a  gray  skin. 


l62 


WEED  SEEDS. 


1.  The  Epicarp  is  highly  characteristic  owing  to  warts  '(TV),  the  stomata, 
and  the  large  hairs,  each  with  a  broadly  conical  base  and  a  hooked  apex. 

2.  Mesocarp.      A  thin- walled   tissue,   for  the  most   part   of   spongy 
parenchyma,  forms  the  thin  mesocarp.     Fibro-vascular  bundles  ramify 


FIG.  139.  Cleavers.  7  cross  section  of  fruit.  The  pericarp  consists  of  Ep  epicarp,  P 
mesocarp  with  R  raphides  cells,  and  Q  cross  cells  or  endocarp;  5  spermoderm;  N 
endosperm.  77  surface  view  showing  cross  cells  and  spiral  vessels.  777  sclerenchy- 
matized  parenchyma  from  mesocarp.  IV  papilla  from  epicarp.  V  spermoderm  in 
surface  view.  VI,  Q  cross  cells  in  cross  section;  s  isolated  raphides  cells.  (VoGL.) 

through  this  tissue.  Cells  containing  large  raphides  bundles  occur  here 
and  there  (s). 

3.  The.  Endocarp  Cells  are  thin- walled,  narrow,  and  transversely 
elongated  (77). 

Spermcderm.     A  single  layer  of  large,  polygonal,  often  elongated  cells 


PLANTAIN. 


'63 


with  conspicuous  brown  walls  constitutes  this  coat  (F).     Vogl  has  noted 
the  presence  of  brown  starch-grains  3  /z  in  diameter. 

Endosperm.  The  exceedingly  thick,  horny  cell-walls  of  this  tissue  are 
very  striking. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  warty  epicarp  cells,  the  hooked  hairs,  the  raphides  bundles,  the 
large  brown  cells  of  the  spermoderm  and  the  horny  endosperm  are  the 
characteristic  elements  (Fig.  139). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);    Vogl  (45). 


PLANTAIN. 

The  minute  seeds  of  common  plantain  (Plantago  major  L.  order 
Plantaginacea)  and  the  larger  seeds  of  ribgrass  or  English  plantain  (P. 
lanceolata  L.)  are  often  present  as  an  impurity  in  flaxseed  and  other 


d 


FIG.  140.  Plantain  (Plantago  major"),  a  fruit  with  calyx,  b  fruit  with  cap,  and  c  longi- 
tudinal section  of  fruit  showing  placenta,  natural  size,  d  seed  from  inner  side  and  e 
seed  from  dorsal  side,  enlarged.  (NoBBE.) 

economic  seeds.     The  brown  seeds  resemble  in  form  the  wheat  kernel, 
being  elongated,  convex  on  one  side  and  grooved  on  the  other  (Fig.  140). 
The    characteristic    tissue  is   the    thick-walled,   porous    endosperm, 
reminding  us  of  the  endosperm  of  cow- wheat  (Melampymm). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bohmer  (23). 


FUNGUS    IMPURITIES. 

ERGOT. 

Ergot  is  the  resting  stage  (sclerotium)  of  Claviceps  pur  pur ea  Tulasne, 
a  fungus  belonging  to  the  order  Pyrenomycetes.  It  is  formed  in  the 
inflorescence  of  rye  and  other  grasses,  entirely  replacing  the  grain. 

Ergot  is  separated  from  rye  for  use  as  a  drug  in  Russia  and  other  con- 
tinental countries.  If  the  grain  is  not  thoroughly  freed  from  this  impurity 
it  is  liable  to  cause  certain  diseases,  although  the  opinion  of  authorities 
differ  as  to  the  amount  which  can  be  eaten  with  impunity. 

The  active  stage  (sphacelia)  of  the  fungus  makes  its  appearance  on 
the  ovary  during  flowering  as  a  soft  felt  of  threads  (mycelium),  bearing 
numerous  brood  cells  (gonidia)  in  a  slimy  mass.  Later  the  mycelium  at 
the  base  of  the  sphacelia  forms  a  compact  mass  which  develops  when 
mature  into  the  elongated  sclerotium.  At  its  apex  the  sclerotium  bears  an 
easily  detachable  cap,  consisting  of  the  remnants  of  the  sphacelia  of  the 
fungus  and  the  ovary  of  the  grass. 

The  grains  of  ergot  are  1-3  cm.  long  1-6  mm.  broad,  more  or  less 
angular,  longitudinally  striate,  slightly  bowed,  tapering  toward  the  blunt 
ends.  (Fig.  141.)  They  are  purple-black  on  the  surface,  and  white 
with  a  tinge  of  pink  or  purple  within. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  structure,  although  quite  simple,  is  very  different  from  that  of 
the  cereals.  As  may  be  seen  in  cross-sections  mounted  in  turpentine, 
the  compacted  hyphae  form  a  false  parenchyma,  with  narrow  cells,  rounded 
cavities  and  rather  thick  walls  (Fig.  142).  The  variation  in  size  of  the 
cells  is  especially  noticeable.  Fat  and  proteid  matter  fill  the  cells ;  starch 
is  absent.  In  one  or  more  of  the  outer  layers  both  the  walls  and  the  cell- 
contents  are  of  a  dark  brown  color,  changing  to  bright -red  with  acids 
and  to  purple  with  alkali. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  cells  of  the  false  parenchyma  are  distinguished  from  those  of 
endosperm  tissues  by  their  smaller  size  and  the  absence  of  starch;  from 

164 


ERGOT.    SMUTS.  165 

those  of  germ  tissues  by  their  thicker  walls,  more  variable  size  and  irregular 
arrangement.     The  dark  brown  coloring  matter  of  the  outer  layers,  with 


FIG.  141.     Ergot   (Claviceps  purpurea),  FIG.   142.     Ergot.      Cross   section   after 

with  cap.     Natural  size.     (VoGL.)  extraction  of  fat.   X  300.    (MOELLER.) 

s 

the  reactions  noted  above,  is  characteristic.     Yogi's  hydrochloric  acid- 
alcohol  test  is  described  on  p.  53. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Berg  (3);  Bohmer  (6,  23);  Fliickiger  (n); 
Greenish  (14);  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16);  Mace  (26);  Meyer  (27);  Moeller  (29,  30,  31,  32); 
Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);   Villiers  et  Collin  (42);   Vogl  (43, 
44,  45);  Wigand  (46);  Wittmack  (10). 
BELZUNG:  Journ.  pharm.  chim.  1890. 
GRUBER:  Die  Methoden  d.  Nachw.  v.  Mutterkorn  im  Mehl  u.  Brot.     Arch.  f.  Hyg. 

1895,  24,   228. 

HARTWICH:  Schweiz.  Woch.  Chem.  Pharm.  1893. 

LAGERHEIM:  Pavlsande  af  mjoldrvga  i  mjol.     Svensk  kemisk  Tidsk.  1900. 
MITLACHER:  Versuch   einer   quantitativen   Bestimmung  des  Mutterkorns  im  Mehle. 

Ztschr.  allg.  osterr.  Apoth.-Ver.  1902. 

MOELLER:  Gutachten  in  der  Mutterkornfrage.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1895. 
MUSSET:  Zum  Nachweis  von  Mutterkorn  in  Mehl.     Pharm.  Centralh.  1899. 
SPAETH:  Pharm.  Centralh.  1896,  17,  542. 

SMUTS. 

The  smuts  (Ustilaginece)  are  parasitic  fungi  living  inside  various 
parts  of  higher  plants.  Those  which  infest  grain  ripen  their  resting  spores 
in  the  ovaries  where  they  form  a  dark  powdery  mass  replacing  the  starch 
of  the  seed.  These  spores  are  more  or  less  globular  and  have  a  thick 
membrane  or  episporium  which  is  smooth  or  reticulated,  brown  or  color- 
less, according  to  the  species  (Fig.  143). 


i66 


FUNGUS  IMPURITIES. 


The  Stinking  Smuts  of  Wheat  ripen  their  spores  in  the  wheat  kernel, 
destroying  the  inner  tissues  but  not  the  outer  hull.  The  damaged  kernels 
are  not  greatly  different  in  size  from  the  sound  ones,  and  consequently 
are  not  readily  separated  by  screening.  Flour  made  from  this  grain  is 
contaminated  with  the  spores  which,  if  present  in  appreciable  amount, 
injure  its  color  and  impart  to  it  a  disagreeable  odor  and  taste. 

The  common  species  (Tilletia  Tritici  (Bjerk)  Wint.,  T.  Caries  Tul.) 
has  reticulated,  pale  brown,  transparent  spores  reaching  18  j*  in  diameter 


FIG.  143.  Spores  of  Smuts,  a  reticulated-spored  stinking  smut  of  wheat  (Tilletia  Caries); 
b  smooth-spored  stinking  smut  of  wheat  (T.  Icevis);  c  rye  stalk  smut  (Urocystis  occulta); 
d  maize  smut  (Ustilago  Maidis);  e  loose  smut  (Ustilago  Carbo).  (MEZ.) 

(a);  a  less  common  species  (T.  foetens  (B.  &  C.)  Trel.,  T.  laevis  Kiihn) 
has  smooth  spores  (b). 

Rye  Smut  (Tilletia  Secalis  Klihn)  is  a  rarer  species,  occurring  chiefly 
in  Europe.  The  reticulated  spores  are  20-25  ft  in  diameter. 

Loose  Smuts.  Several  species  of  loose  smuts,  formerly  classed  together 
as  Ustilago  Carbo  Tul.,  attack  the  fruit  of  wheat,  oats  and  barley.  As  they 
destroy,  not  only  the  starchy  inner  portion  of  the  kernels,  but  also  the  hull, 
the  spores  (e),  which  vary  up  to  8  /*,  escape  during  harvesting  and  seldom 
contaminate  the  grain  or  the  flour  made  from  the  grain.  The  following 
species,  infesting  respectively  wheat,  oats  and  barley,  have  been  described : 
U.  Tritici  (Pers)  Jens,  U.  Avence  (Pers)  Jens,  U.  nuda  (Jens)  Kell.  &  Sw. 

Maize  Smut  (U.  Zece  (Bechm.)  Ung.,  U.  Maidis  Lev.)  develops  in 
the  ear  of  maize,  forming  an  irregular  sack  filled  with  a  dust  consisting  of 
dark  brown  spores  (d),  8-14  /JL  in  diameter,  with  numerous  papillae  on  the 
surface. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
CLINTON:  North  American  Ustilagineae.     Jour.  Myco  .  1902,  8,  128. 


PART   III. 

OIL  SEEDS  AND  OIL  CAKES. 


OIL    SEEDS. 

All  fruits  and  seed  in  which  the  reserve  material  is  largely  in  the  form 
of  oil  or  fat  properly  belong  under  this  head,  although  for  convenience 
the  cocoanut  and  other  oleaginous  nuts  are  described  in  Part  V,  and 
the  peanut,  which  contains  starch  as  well  as  oil,  with  other  legumes  in 
Part  IV.  The  mustards  are  not  only  oil  seeds  but  also  spices. 

As  a  rule  the  oil  is  contained  largely  in  the  embryo,  but  in  the  linseed 
it  is  about  equally  divided  between  the  endosperm  and  the  embryo,  while 
in  the  olive  it  is  largely  in  the  pericarp.  In  addition  to  oil  the  seeds  con- 
tain large  amounts  of  proteids  in  the  form  of  aleurone  grains. 

Oil=seed   Products. 

The  most  important  products  of  the  oil  seeds  are  the  expressed  oils, 
but  many  of  the  cakes  or  residues  of  the  oil  presses,  like  the  by-products 
of  flour  mills,  starch  factories,  breweries  and  distilleries,  are  of  great 
value  as  cattle  foods.  Castor  pomace  is  utilized  as  a  nitrogeneous  fer- 
tilizer, and  ground  cottonseed  cake  or  cottonseed  meal  both  as  a  cattle 
food  ^  and  a  fertilizer.  Mustard  cake  is  employed  both  as  a  drug  and  a 
condiment. 

Some  seeds  are  decorticated  before  expressing  the  oil,  others  are 
pressed  whole  and  the  hulls  are  either  separated  from  the  cake  after 
grinding,  as  for  example  in  the  manufacture  of  mustard  flour,  or  are 
not  separated  at  all. 

Since  oil  cakes  and  oil  meals  are  rich  in  protein  and  also  in  fat,  not- 
withstanding the  removal  of  the  larger  part  of  this  latter  constituent, 
they  are  known  as  concentrated  feeds. 

Starch  being  entirely  absent  in  true  oil  seeds  when  fully  ripe,  its  pres- 
ence in  the  cake  indicates  adulteration  with  starchy  material  or  at  least 
contamination  with  weed  seeds.  Peanut  cake,  however,  being  a  by-product 
of  a  starchy  legume,  contains  a  considerable  amount  of  starch,  while  on  the 
other  hand,  maize  cake,  although  a  cereal  product,  is  free  from  starch 

The  hulls  separated  from  cottonseed,  sunflower  seed  and  some  other 

169 


170  OIL  SEEDS. 

seeds  are  utilized  as  adulterants  of  cattle  foods,  and  mustard  hulls  are 
employed   as   adulterants   of  spices   and   prepared   mustard. 

The  dried  residues  from  the  manufacture  of  some  of  the  essential 
oils  are  also  non-starchy  materials  similar  to  those  here  considered. 

METHODS  OF  EXAMINATION. 

Preliminary  Examination.  Each  oil-cake  has  certain  physical  char- 
acteristics, such  as  color,  odor,  texture,  deportment  with  water,  etc., 
which  can  be  learned  only  by  experience.  For  example,  maize  cake 
has  a  characteristic  taste  and  odor;  cottonseed  cake  a  characteristic  color; 
most  cruciferous  products  develop  an  odor  of  mustard  oil  on  mixing 
with  water;  linseed  cake  becomes  slimy  by  the  same  treatment;  and  so 
on. 

Foreign  seeds,  fragments  of  hulls  and  other  constituents  may  often 
be  found  by  macroscopic  examination  of  the  unground  material  or  of 
the  coarser  grades  obtained  by  sifting.  These,  if  not  identified  by  the 
naked  eye  or  under  the  lens,  are  reserved  for  microscopic  examination. 

Cold-water  Test.  The  presence  of  a  large  excess  of  hulls  in  cotton- 
seed meal  is  easily  disclosed  by  mixing  5  grams  of  the  ground  material 
with  100  cc.  of  cold  water,  and  comparing  the  deposit  of  black  hulls, 
which  immediately  settles  from  the  yellow  suspended  matter,  with  that 
obtained  by  the  same  method  from  samples  of  known  composition. 

This  simple  process  is  also  useful  in  the  examination  of  other  oil  cakes 
as  well  as  some  cereal  products,  and  serves  not  only  to  detect  hulls  but 
also  added  mineral  matter. 

Collin  and  Perrofs  Method1  of  preliminary  examination  is  as  follows: 
Boil  2  grams  of  the  powdered  material  10  minutes  with  60  cc.  of  water 
to  which  are  added  10-12  drops  of  concentrated  potash  solution.  Allow 
to  settle  7  or  8  minutes,  decant  and  wash  twice  with  water  by  decanta- 
tion.  The  last  decantation  should  leave  15-20  cc.  of  water  in  the  dish, 
which,  given  a  gentle  gyratory  motion  causes  the  particles  of  the  residue 
to  deposit  according  to  their  density.  These  particles  are  examined 
as  to  their  physical  properties,  especially  their  color  and  hardness,  and 
are  afterwards  prepared  for  microscopic  examinatiqn. 

Chemical  Analysis.  Tests  for  starch  or  starchy  adulterants  are 
made  by  boiling  a  small  quantity  of  the  material  with  water,  cooling  and 
adding  a  few  .dropsr  of  potassium  iodide  iodine. 

1  Les  Residus  Industrials,  etc.     Paris,  1904,  35. 


OIL-SEED  PRODUCTS,  Ifl 

Quantitative  determinations  of  starch  are  laborious  and  only  neces- 
sary in  exceptional  cases,  but  determinations  of  protein  (NX6J),  fat 
and  crude  fiber  are  easily  made  and  are  essential  for  the  proper  valuation 
of  the  material.  The  addition  of  starchy  substances  tends  to  diminish 
the  percentage  of  protein  and  fat  without  greatly  altering  the  percentage 
of  crude  fiber,  while  the  addition  of  hulls  or  woody  adulterants  tends  to 
increase  the  percentage  of  fiber  at  the  expense  of  both  the  protein  and 
fat. 

Microscopic  Examination.  Starch  grains  being  absent,  except  in 
peanut  cake  and  in  cake  made  from  unripe  or  impure  seeds,  the  micro- 
scopist  must  rely  largely  on  the  structure  of  the  hulls,  or  in  exceptional 
cases  on  the  characters  of  the  aleurone  grains.  The  treatment  pre- 
liminary to  the  microscopic  examination  is  also  very  different  from  that 
employed  for  starchy  products.  Digestion  with  diastase  or  boiling  with 
dilute  acid  is  obviously  irrational  in  products  containing  no  starch,  but 
on  the  other  hand,  extraction  with  ether  or  a  similar  solvent  is  often  neces- 
sary owing  to  the  presence  of  considerable  fat,  and  treatment  with  alkali 
to  remove  the  proteid  matter  is  usually  desirable. 

Direct  Examination  of  the  powdered  material  in  water  is  useful  chiefly 
in  detecting  foreign  matter  containing  starch.  As  starch  grains  are 
liable  to  be  confused  with  oil  drops  and  proteid  grains,  addition  of 
iodine  tincture  is  advisable. 

Addition  of  alkali  facilitates  the  examination  of  the  tissue  by  dis- 
solving the  proteid  grains,  saponifying  or  emulsifying  the  oil,  and  swell- 
ing the  cell-walls.  Mounting  ,in  a  drop  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
aids  in  identifying  cottonseed  meal,  as  the  resin  masses  become  bright 
red  in  this  reagent. 

Chloral  hydrate  serves  to  detect  the  hulls  of  wild  mustard  by  im- 
parting a  beautiful  cherry-red  color  to  the  contents  of  the  palisade  cells. 
These  and  a  few  other  reactions  are  of  value  in  diagnosis,  but  as  a  rule 
reagents  serve  merely  to  clear  the  tissues,  thus  facilitating  their  examina- 
tion. 

Fragments  of  the  hulls  picked  out  from  the  unground  material 
are  sectioned,  scraped,  macerated  or  otherwise  treated  and  examined 
in  water,  dilute  alkali  or  some  other  suitable  medium. 

Ether  Extraction  preliminary  to  examination  in  water  or  to  treatment 
by  HebebrandV  method  may  be  performed  on  a  filter  or  by  decantation 
in  a  beaker.  If  more  complete  extraction  is  desirable  the  continuous 
apparatus  of  Soxhlet,  Tollens  or  Johnson  may  be  employed. 


172  OIL  SEEDS. 

Hebebrand's  Method1  for  clearing  sesame  cake  and  other  materials 
with  delicate  tissues  which  would  be  destroyed  by  Beneke's  methods  is 
as  follows : 

Extract  a  portion  of  the  material  with  ether  and  grind  so  as  to  pass 
a  0.5  mm.  mesh.  Mix  0.5  gram  of  the  extracted  and  finely  ground 
material  with  10-15  cc.  of  sodium  carbonate  solution  (7  grams  of  the  dry 
salt  in  100  cc.  of  water)  and  pass  chlorine  gas  into  the  mixture,  taking 
care  that  the  solution  remains  alkaline.  After  2-15  minutes,  according 
to  the  material,  dilute  with  water,  allow  the  fragments  of  tissues  to  settle, 
decant  off  the  liquid  and  wash  twice  by  decantation.  Examine  the  residue 
in  water  or  some  other  suitable  solvent. 

Chlorine  gas  is  conveniently  prepared  by  treating  the  so-called  "chlo- 
ride of  lime  cubes"  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  in  the  special  form  of 
generator  supplied  by  Peters  and  Rost,  Berlin.  Sufficient  gas  for  clearing 
one  sample  may  be  generated  from  a  single  cube. 

Beneke's  Method  2  may  be  used  for  accumulating  and  clearing  tissues 
of  the  pericarp  and  spermoderm,  provided  these  tissues  are  strongly  devel- 
oped. It  is  not  suited  for  clearing  delicate  tissues. 

It  is  described  at  some  length  by  the  author,  but  the  following  direc- 
tions will  be  found  sufficient:  Heat  in  a  porcelain  dish,  with  constant 
stirring,  about  5  grams  of  the  material  with  30  cc.  of  concentrated 
hydrochloric  acid  and  10  cc.  of  concentrated  nitric  acid  until  the  liquid 
begins  to  foam.  Add  at  once  considerable  cold  water,  and  filter  on  a 
piece  of  fine  mull  and  wash  with  water. 

Rinse  back  into  the  dish  with  60  cc.  of  water,  add  30  cc.  of  concentrated 
sodium  hydrate  and  heat  until  the  solution  begins  to  boil.  Dilute  with 
cold  water,  filter  and  wash  as  before.  Mount  the  residue  and  examine. 

Collin  and  Perrofs  Method  is  described  under  "  Preliminary  Examina- 
tion "  (p.  170). 

CRUCIFEROUS    SEEDS    (Crucifene). 

The  flowers  of  cruciferous  plants  are  very  similar  in  all  the  species, 
having,  as  the  family  name  suggests,  four  regular  petals  and  four  sepals. 

Systems  of  classification  depend  largely  on  the  characters  of  the  pods 
and  seeds. 

1  Beitrag    zur  mikroskopischen  Untersuchung    von    Nahrungs-  u.  Futtermitteln.       For- 
schungsber.  f.  Lebensm.  1897,  306.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1898,  51,  74. 

2  Anleitung  zur  mikroskopischen  Untersuchung  der  Kraftfuttermittel.     Berlin,  1886,  38.        t 


CRUCIFEROUS  SEEDS.  173 

The  pods,  known  as  siliques  when  long  or  silicles  when  short,  are 
commonly  divided  into  two  cells  by  thin,  longitudinal  partitions,  passing 
through  the  two  parietal  placentae.  When  ripe  the  outer  walls  of  each 
pod  separate  from  the  partition  as  two  valves,  the  seeds  remaining  with  the 
partition. 

The  campylotropous  seeds  consist  entirely  of  spermoderm  and  embryo 
without  endosperm,  and  usually  have  a  pungent  taste. 

As  seen  in  cross  section  the  arrangement  of  the  cotyledons  (  =  )  with 
reference  to  the  radicle  (o)  maybe  accumbent  (o  =)  incumbent  (o  |j) 
or  condu plicate  (o  >  > ).  In  some  species  the  cotyledons  are  coiled  or 
folded  endwise,  the  cross  section  appearing  thus:  o  ||  ||,  o  ||  ||  ||  etc. 

Under  a  lens  the  seeds  of  some  species  show  numerous  shallow  pits, 
the  ridges  between  the  pits  forming  delicate  reticulations. 

\ 
Microscopic  Characters  of  Cruciferous  Seeds. 

The  Spermoderm  (Fig.  146)  normally  has  four  layers,  but  in  many 
species  the  first  and  second  layers  at  maturity  form  a  structureless  mem- 
brane with  no  evidence  of  cells. 

1.  The  Epidermal  Cells  (ep)  when  present  are  polygonal,  and  usually 
have  thin  walls.     In  certain  species  on  adding  water  a  mucilaginous 
substance  is  evident  which  D'Arbaumont,  contrary  to  the  formerly  accepted 
view,  has  shown  is  formed  from  cell-contents,  not  from  the  cell-wall. 

D'Arbaumont  divides  the  phenomena  observed  in  numerous  species  on 
addition  of  water  into  four  groups: 

(1)  Complete  diffusion  of  the  contents. 

(2)  Diffusion    of    the    lateral    layers,    an  axial    cylinder    remaining 
unchanged. 

(3)  Simple  swelling  of  the  layers. 

(4)  The  mucilage,  owing  to  the  pressure  developed  in  the  cell,  bursts 
through  the  outer  wall  forming  a  body  of  definite  shape. 

The  appearance  of  the  mucilage  after  addition  of  water,  whether  in 
the  cell  or  after  escaping,  is  of  considerable  value  in  diagnosis. 

2.  The  Subepidermal  Layer,  or  outer  parenchyma  layer,  consists  of  one 
or  two  cell  layers  of  thin-walled  polygonal  elements  often  of  considerable 
size.     In  some  species,  notably  white  mustard,  the  cells  (Fig.  144,  se)  are 
collenchymatously  thickened  at  the  angles. 

3.  The  Palisade  Cells  (6),  or  beaker  cells,  form  the  most  striking  layer 
of  the  seed.     The  inner  walls  and  at  least  the  inner  portions  of  the  radial 


174  OIL   SEEDS. 

walls  are  more  or  less  strongly  thickened,  giving  the  cells  in  cross  section 
a  beaker-like  appearance.  These  thickened  walls  are  either  yellow  or 
brown,  according  to  the  color  of  the  seed. 

In  certain  species  this  layer  in  surface  view  displays  dark  meshes 
(Fig.  149)  corresponding  to  the  reticulations  of  the  spermoderm.  This 
appearance  is  due  to  the  greater  height  of  the  palisade  cells  (Fig.  146,  se) 
in  the  meshes,  and  is  valuable  in  diagnosis. 

As  seen  in  surface  view  the  cells  vary  greatly  in  breadth  (3-100  ,«) 
and  have  a  sharply  polygonal  outline  and  more  or  less  rounded  lumen. 
Owing  to  their  polygonal  form  and  thick  walls  they  present  a  mosaic -like 
appearance. 

4.  The  Pigment  Cells  (g)  are  in  one  or  more  layers,  and  contain  in  the 
case  of  brown  seeds,  a  dark  colored  material.  In  surface  view  they  lack 
characteristic  features. 

Endosperm.  Most  authors  have  described  the  remaining  layers  of 
the  hull  as  inner  spermoderm;  Gruinard  and  also  Gram,  however,  have 
demonstrated  that  they  belong  to  the  endosperm. 

1 .  Aleurone  Cells  (K)  similar  to  those  found  in  the  cereals  form  the  outer 
portion  of  the  endosperm.     In  most  seeds  only  a  single  cell  layer  is  present 
except  under  the  micropyle  where  there  are  two  or  even  more  layers,  and 
under  the  hilum  where  they  are  entirely  absent. 

2.  Obliterated  Parenchyma  makes  up  the  remainder  of  the  endosperm. 
The  Embryo  tissues  are  thin-walled  and  contain  aleurone  grains  and 

fat. 

CHIEF  CHARACTERS. 

None  of  the  common  cruciferous  seeds  contain  starch,  and  all  have 
a  palisade  layer  of  beaker  cells  forming  a  brown  or  yellow  mosaic, 
and  an  endosperm  with  a  single  layer  of  aleurone  cells. 

Of  diagnostic  value  when  present  are  the  epidermal  cells  with  mucilagi- 
nous contents,  the  subepidermal  layer  of  collenchyma  cells  and  the 
pigment  layer. 

Analytical  Key  to  Cruciferous  Seeds. 

A.  Spermoderm  yellow. 

1.  Epidermal  cells  with  mucilaginous    contents;    subepidermal  layer  collen- 

chymatous White   Mustard    (Sinapis   alba). 

2.  Epidermal  cells  with  mucilaginous   contents;   subepidermal  layer  not  evi- 

dent  (Eruca  sativa.) 


CRUCIFEROUS  SEEDS.  175 

3.  Epidermal  and  subepidermal  layers  form  a  structureless  membrane  (not 

cellular) Indian  Colza  (Brassica  campestris  var.  Sarson). 

B.  Spermoderm  brown. 

(a)  Palisade  layer  with  reticulations. 

*  Epidermis  cellular,  usually  with  mucilaginous  contents. 

4.  Subepidermal  cells  large,  not  collenchymatous ;    palisade  cells  red  brown, 

narrow  (usually  3-10  /*) .Black  Mustard  (B.  nigra). 

5.  Subepidermal  cells  collenchymatous;   palisade  cells  red  brown 

(Sinapis  dissecta}. 

6.  Subepidermal  cells  very  large,  collenchymatous;  palisade  cells  red-yellow. 

Wild  Radish  (Raphanus  Raphani strum). 

7.  Subepidermal  cells  indistinct  or  lacking;   palisade  cells  red-brown,  broader 

than  in  4 Sarepta   Mustard   (B.   Besseriana). 

8.  Subepidermal  layer  lacking;    palisade  cells  after  treatment  with  acid  and 

alkali,  yellow-brown;  reticulations  very  narrow.  .Palai  Rape  (B.  rugosa}. 
**  Epidermis  not  cellular. 

9.  Palisade  cells  with  lumen  thicker  than  double  walls;  reticulations  narrow; 

aleurone  cells  often  in  two  layers. 

Brown  Indian  Rape  (B.  Napus  var.  dichotoma). 

10.  Palisade  cells  with  lumen  narrower  than  double  walls;    reticulations  nar- 

row;  aleurone  cells  in  one  layer Indian  Mustard  (B.  junced). 

(b}  Palisade  layer  with  ribs,  not  reticulations. 

1 1 .  Epidermal  and  subepidermal  layers  not  cellular. 

Field  Pennycress  (Thlaspi  arvense). 

(c]  Palisade  layer  without  distinct  reticulations  or  ribs;    epidermis  cellular  with 
mucilaginous  contents. 

*  Mucilage  escapes  as  long  tapering  columns. 

12.  Epidermal  and  palisade  cells  broad  (up  to  90  j*),  walls  15-20  /*• 

False  Flax  (Camelina  saliva}. 

13.  Radial  walls  of  epidermis  thick  and  porous;    palisade  cells  broad  with 

broad  lumen (Erysimum  orientale). 

**  Mucilage  escapes  as  long  columns  broadened  at  the  outer  ends. 

14 Pepper  Grass  (Lepidium  campestre,  L.  sativum). 

***  Mucilage  in  axial  columns  seldom  escaping  from  the  cells. 

15.  Palisade  cells  up  to  60  n  broad  with  broad  lumen. 

Shepherd's  Purse  (Capsella  Bursa-Pastoris). 

1 6.  Palisade  cells  narrow,  thickened  only  at  inner  ends 

(Sisymbrium  officinale). 
****  Mucilage  never  escapes  from  cells. 

17.  Mucilage  in  layers  in  outer  portions  of  cells;  palisade  cells  with  broad  lumen, 

each  containing  a  single  crystal,  (rarely  a  cluster) . .  (Barbarea  vulgaris). 

18.  Mucilage  shows  honeycomb  structure;     spermoderm  blood-red  on  heating 

with  chloral Charlock  (B.  Sinapistrum). 


176  OIL  SEEDS. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General   Bibliography,    pp.  671-674     Bohmer  (6,  23);  Collin  et  Perrot  (9). 
ABRAHAM:  Bau   und   Entwicklung   der  Wandverdickungen   in   den   Samenoberhaut- 

zellen  einiger  Kruziferen.     Jahrb.  f.  wissensch.  Bot.  1885,  14,  559. 
D'ARBAUMONT:  Note  sur  les  teguments  seminaux  de  quelques  Cruciferes.    Bot.  Jahresb. 

1890,  18,  I  Abt.,  663.     Journ.  de  m'crographie.  1891,  15,  212.     Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  de 

France.  1891,  38,  67. 
BURCHARD  :  Ueber  den  Bau  der  Samenschale  einiger  Brassica-  und  Sinapis-Arten.   Jour. 

f.  Landw.  1894,  42,  125.     1896,  44,  337. 
CLAES  et  THYES:  Morphologic  comparee  des  testes  des  Brassica:   oleracea,  napus,  rapa 

et  nigra  et  des  Sinapis:  alba  et  arvensis.     Bull,  de  Pagric.  1891,  7,  253. 
GRAM:  Ueber  Rapskuchen  und  deren  Verunreinigung.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1898,  50, 

449- 
GUIGNARD  :  Recherches  sur  le  developpement  de  la  graine  et  en  particulier  du  tegument 

seminal.     Jour.  Bot.  1893,  7. 
v.  HOHNEL:  Bau  der  Samenschale  der  vier  cultivirten  Brassicaarten ;  in  Haberlandt. 

Wissensch. -prakt.    Untersuchungen    auf   dem    Gebiet   des    Pflanzenbaues.    1875, 

1,  171. 
KINZEL:  Ueber  die  Samen  einiger  Brassica-  und  Sinapis-Arten,  mit  besonderer  Beriick- 

sichtigung  der  ostindischen.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1899,  52,  169. 
KOBUS:  Kraftfutter  und  seiner  Verfalschung.     Landw.  Jahrb.   1884,  13,  813. 
PAMMEL:  On  the  Seeds  and  Spermoderm  of  some  Cruciferae.     Amer.  Monthly  Mcr. 

Jour.  1897,  i. 
PIETERS  and  CHARLES:  The  Seed  Coats  of  Certain  Species  of  the  Genus  Brassica.    U.  S. 

Dep.  Agr.,  Div.  Bot.  Bull.  29,  1901. 

PRAIN:  A  Note  on  the  Mustards  cultivated  in  Bengal.   Agricultural  Ledger  1898,  No.  i. 
SCHRODER:  Untersuchung  des  Samens  der  Brassica -Arten  und  Varietaten.     Landw. 

Vers.-Stat.  1871,  14,  179. 
SEMPOLOWSKI:   Ueber    den    Bau   der    Schale   landwirthschaftlich    wichtiger    Samen. 

Landw.  Jahrb.   1874,  3,  823. 
TSCHIRCH:  Entwicklungsgeschichtliche  Studien.  Schw.  Woch.  Chem.  Pharm.  1897,  35, 

No.  17. 

VUILLEMIN:  Beitrage  z.  Kenntnis  der  Senfsamen.     Diss.  Zurich,  1904. 
WOLFF:  Zur  Kentniss  der  Senfsorten  des  Handels.     Pharm.  Ztg.  1893,  38,  761. 


WHITE   MUSTARD. 

Yellow  or  white  mustard  (Sinapis  alba  L.),  a  native  of  Europe,  is 
grown  for  its  seed  in  various  parts  of  Europe  and  America,  particularly 
in  England,  Holland,  Germany,  and  California. 

The  nearly  globular  seeds  are  2-3  mm.  in  diameter  and  are  characterized 
by  their  buff  color.  Examined  under  a  lens  they  have  a  finely  granular 
but  not  reticulated  surface.  Like  all  the  mustards  they  are  campylotro- 


WHITE  MUSTARD. 


177 


pous.     Cross  sections  slightly  magnified  show  the  embryo  consisting  of 
the  radicle  and  two  large  conduplicate  cotyledons. 

In  addition  to  sinapin  sulphocyanide  and  the  enzyme,  myrosin,  both 
of  which  are  found  also  in  black  mustard,  white  mustard  contains  a 
glucoside,  sinalbin,  which,  in  the  presence  of  water,  is  split  up  by  myrosin 
into  sinapin  hydrosulphate,  dextrose,  and  sinalbin  sulphocyanide,  the 
latter  being  a  non-volatile  principle  with  a  biting  taste. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Cross  sections  are  prepared  after  embedding  the  dry  seed  in  hard 
paraffine.  For  the  study  of  the  epidermis  these  are  mounted  in  alcohol, 
and  water  is  cautiously  drawn  under  the  cover-glass  during  observation. 
The  same  sections,  after  treatment  with  alkali,  serve  for  the  study  of  the 
other  layers  of  the  spermoderm.  Sections  mounted  in  turpentine  or 
strong  glycerine  are  adapted  for  studying  the  aleurone  grains  of  the 
endosperm  and  embryo.  Surface  preparations  of  the  spermoderm  and 
endosperm  are  obtained  by  heating  with  dilute  alkali  and  scraping  with 
a  scalpel. 

Spermoderm  (Figs.  144  and  145).  i.  The  Epidermis  (ep)  consists 
of  polygonal,  isodiametric  mucilage  cells  ranging  up  to  100  /*  in  diameter. 


FIG.  144.  White  Mustard  (Sinapis  alba).  Cross  section  of  seed.  Spermoderm  consists 
of  ep  epidermis,  se  collenchyma,  b  palisade  cells,  and  p  parenchyma;  endosperm  con- 
sists of  P  aleurone  cells  and  i  compressed  cells.  (MOELLER.) 

Cautious  treatment  of  alcohol  mounts  with  water  displays  the  mucilaginous 
substance  deposited  in  layers  with  a  distinct  cylindrical  cavity  in  the  axis 
of  each  cell.  In  surface  view,  the  primary  walls  appear  indistinctly 
beaded  and  the  mucilage  layers  show  concentric  rings  and  often  radial 
clefts. 


I78 


OIL  SEEDS. 


2.  Collenchyma  (se).     Characteristic  of  white  mustard  are  the  sub- 
epidermal  cells  with  collenchymatously  thickened  angles.     These  are  of 
about  the  size  of  the  epidermal  cells,  and  are  usually  in  two  layers. 

3.  Palisade  Cells  (&).     Radially  elongated  cells  thickened  in  the  inner 
halves  form  the  most  conspicuous  layer  of  the  seed,  the  thickened  walls 
forming  a  kind  of  cup,  hence  the  name  "beaker  cells."    Of  great  diagnostic 
importance  are  the  colorless,  thickened  walls,  which  in  most  economic 
cruciferous  seeds  are  brown.     As  these  cells  are  of  nearly  uniform  height, 
pronounced  reticulations  are  not  evident  on  the  seed.     In  surface  view 
the  cells  are  sharply  polygonal,  varying  up  to  15  /JL  in  diameter. 


FIG.  145.  White  Mustard.  Elements  of  seed  in  surface  view,  ep  epidermis,  se  collen- 
chyma,  b  palisade  cells,  and  p  parenchyma,  of  spermoderm;  P  aleurone  cells  of  endo- 
sperm; C  cotyledon  tissue.  (MOELLER.) 

4.  Inner  Layers  (p).  Two  or  more  layers  of  thin- walled  isodiametric 
or  elongated  cells  complete  the  spermoderm.  These  cells,  unlike  the 
corresponding  layer  of  many  cruciferous  seeds,  do  not  contain  a  pigment. 

Endosperm  (Figs.  144  and  145).  i.  Aleurone  Cells  (P).  These  cells 
resemble  closely  the  aleurone  cells  of  cereals.  They  are  20-40  /*  in 
diameter,  have  thick,  colorelss  walls,  and  contain  fat  globules  and 
polygonal  or  rounded  aleurone  grains  1-4  /*  in  diameter. 

2.  Obliterated  Parenchyma  (i).  The  remainder  of  the,  endosperm  con- 
sists of  compressed  cells  without  evident  cellular  structure. 

Embryo  (Fig.  145,  C).  Cross  sections  show  that  not  only  the  cells 
on  the  inner  sides  of  the  cotyledons  (the  upper  sides  after  sprouting)  are 
typical  palisade  cells,  but  all  the  mesocarp  cells  are  more  or  less  elongated. 
These  cells  in  the  mature  seeds  contain  fat  and  aleurone  grains,  never 
starch.  The  aleurone  grains  are  either  isodiametric  or  oblong.  In  the 


WHITE  MUSTARD.  i?9 

outer  epidermis  the  isodiametric  grains  are  about  3  n  in  diameter,  in 
the  inner  layers  6-10  //.  The  oblong  grains  are  about  the  same  width 
as  those  of  isodiametric  form,  but  are  often  twice  or  three  times  as  long. 
As  the  cells  are  but  little  broader  than  the  grains,  each  usually  contains 
but  a  single  row  of  grains,  which  are  often  so  crowded  that  the  sides  in 
contact  are  more  or  less  flattened.  Each  grain  contains  numerous  minute 
globoids. 

As  was  first  noted  by  Gruinard,  occasional  cells  of  both  the  cotyledons 
and  radicle  contain  grains  without  globoids,  which,  in  sections  previ- 
ously extracted  with  ether,  are  colored  bright  crimson-red  on  gently 
heating  with  Millon's  reagent  and  golden-yellow  on  treatment  in  the 
cold  with  iodine.  These  cells  are  believed  by  both  Gruinard  and  Gram  to 
be  the  seat  of  the  myrosin,  and  are  designated  "  myrosin-cells. " 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  color  of  white  mustard  seed  serves  to  distinguish  it  from  all 
black  or  brown  cruciferous  seeds  both  in  a  macroscopic  and  microscopic 
way.  Seeds  of  white  Indian  rape  (B.  campestris  L.  var.  Sarson  Prain) 
sometimes  used  as  an  adulterant,  although  of  the  same  color  as  white 
mustard,  are  distinguished  macroscopically  by  the  more  pronounced 
ridge  over  the  radicle,  and  microscopically  by  the  homogenous  epidermis, 
the  absence  of  a  collenchymatous  subepidermal  layer  and  the  large  size  of 
the  palisade  cells. 

White  Mustard  Flour  is  prepared  either  from  the  whole  seeds,  or 
more  commonly  from  the  cake  remaining  after  expressing  the  oil.  Al- 
though the  hulls  are  largely  removed,  fragments  are  always  present  in 
small  amount  and  are  distinguished  from  the  brown  hulls  of  black 
mustard  and  other  related  seeds  by  their  yellow  color.  The  bulk  of 
the  organized  material  consists  of  proteid  and  fat.  Examined  in  tur- 
pentine, or  after  extraction  of  the  fat,  in  iodine  tincture,  the  aleurone 
grains  are  clearly  differentiated.  White  and  black  mustard  flour  are 
usually  blended,  as  noted  under  black  mustard. 

Prepared  Mustard.     See  Black  Mustard  (p.  183). 

White  Mustard  Hulls,  separated  in  the  manufacture  of  mustard 
flour,  serve  as  an  adulterant  for  prepared  mustard  and  various  spices. 

The  elements  of  the  hulls  of  chief  value  in  diagnosis  are  the  colorless, 
distinctly  cellular  epidermal  layer  (Fig.  145,  ep)  with  mucilaginous  con- 
tents, the  collenchymatous  subepidermal  layer  (se)  and  the  yellow  palisade 
cells  (b)  without  evident  reticulation. 


i8o  OIL  SEEDS. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Berg  (3);  Blyth  (5);  Bohmer  (10);  Fliick- 
iger  (n);  Greenish  (14);  Hanausek  T.  F.  (16,  48);  Harz  (18);  Hassall  (19);  Leach 
(25);  Mace  (26);  Meyer,  A.  (10,  27,  28);  Moeller  (29,  30,  31,  32);  Planchon  et  Collin 
(34);  Schimper  (37);  Tichimirow  (38);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin 
(42);  Vogl  (43,45)- 

Also  see  Bibliography,  of  Cruciferas,  p.  176. 

HARZ:  Ueber  eine  neue  Verfalschimg  des  weissen  Senfes.     Bot.  Centralb.  1887,  8,  249. 
STEFFECK:  Ein  neues  Falschungsmittel  des  weissen   Senfes  (Sinapis  alba).     Landw. 
Vers.-Stat.  1887,  33,  411. 


BLACK   MUSTARD. 

Brown  or  black  mustard  (Brassica  nigra  (L.)  Koch)  is  cultivated 
in  many  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  The  globular,  campylotro- 
pous  seeds  are  1-1.5  mm-  m  diameter  and  vary  in  color  from  light  brown 
to  nearly  black.  Under  a  lens  they  are  beautifully  reticulated.  The 
husk  or  hull  of  the  seed  consisting  of  the  spermoderm  and  the  thin  endo- 
sperm, envelops  the  embryo  with  its  conduplicate  cotyledons. 

The  sharp  taste  of  black  mustard  is  due  chiefly  to  allyl  sulphocyanide, 
or  volatile  mustard  oil.  This  does  not,  however,  exist  ready  formed  in 
the  seed;  but  is  developed  by  the  action  of  an  enzyme,  myrosin,  on  a 
glucoside,  sinigrin  (potassium  myronate),  in  the  presence  of  water. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Cross-sections  and  surface  mounts  are  prepared  as  described  under 
white  mustard. 

Spermoderm  (Figs.  146, 147  and  148).  i.  The  Mucilage  Cells  (ep)  of 
the  epidermis  are  polygonal  in  form  and  of  large  size  (50-100  /*).  If 
sections  are  first  mounted  in  alcohol,  and  water  is  carefully  drawn  under 
.  the  cover-glass,  the  mucilaginous  substance  is  seen  to  be  deposited  in  layers. 
Gentle  warming  with  alkali  removes  this  substance,  and  also  aids  in 
clearing  the  remaining  layers. 

2.  Subepidermal  Cells  (se).     Beneath  the  epidermis  are  thin- walled 
cells  even  larger  than  those  of  the  epidermis,  the  radial  walls  of  which 
correspond  with  the  reticulations  of  the  seed  and  the  highest  cells  of 
the  next  layer. 

3.  Palisade   Cells    (£).      Cross  sections   show   that   the   palisade   or 
beaker  cells  are  of  unequal  height,  causing  the  reticulated  appearance 


BLACK  MUSTARD. 


181 


of  the  seed  and  the   conspicuous,    dark  meshes   seen  in   surface  view 
(Fig.   149).      Focusing  on  the  extreme  outer  end  of   the  highest  cells, 


FiG.  146.  Black  Mustard  (Brassica  nigra).  Cross  section  of  seed. .  Spermoderm  consists 
of  ep  outer  epidermis,  se  giant  cells  or  subepidermal  layer,  b  palisade  cells  and  g  pig- 
ment cells;  endosperm  consists  of  K  aleurone  cells  and  o  compressed  cells;  c  cotyledon. 

(MOELLER.) 

the  thin  walls  of  these  cells  form  chains  following  the  contour  of 
the  meshes.  Sometimes  a  transparent  skin,  consisting  of  the  epidermis 
and  the  outer  thin-walled  portion  of  the  palisade  cells,  breaks  away 
from  the  remainder  of  the  spermoderm,  presenting  the  appearance  shown 


se 


FiG.  147.     Black  Mustard.     Surface  view  of  ep  epidermis,  se  giant  cells  and  b  outer  portion 
of  palisade  layer.     Xi6o.     (MQELLER.) 

in  Fig.  147.     As  seen  in  surface  view,  the  cells  are  isodiametric,  4-10  // 
in  diameter,  or  elongated,  reaching  a  maximum  length  of  20  /*. 


182 


OIL  SEEDS. 


4.  Pigment  Cells  (g).  One,  sometimes  two,  layers  of  cells  with 
brown  contents  form  the  inner  coat  of  the  spermoderm.  In  surface 
view  the  cells  are  either  isodiametric  or  somewhat  elongated,  often  reach- 
ing a  length  of  75  //.  Ferric  chloride  colors  the  cell-contents  blue.  The 
color  of  the  seed  is  due  partly  to  this  layer  and  partly  to  the  palisade 
layer. 

The  Endosperm  (K,  o)  and  Embryo  (C)  are  practically  the  same 
as  described  under  white  mustard. 


DIAGNOSIS. 


Black  Mustard  Seed  is  distinguished  from  that  of  white  mustard  by  its 
darker  color,  from  Sarepta  mustard  by  its  smaller  size,  and  from  rape 
by  its  smaller  size  and  distinctly  reticulated  surface.  Charlock  (B. 
Sinapistrum  Boiss.),  a  common  weed,  especially  in  the  grain  fields  of 
North  and  South  Dakota,  is  often  substituted  for  black  mustard. 


FIG.  148.  Black  Mustard.  Surface  view 
of  p  inner  portion  of  palisade  layer,  g 
pigment  cells,  K  aleurone  cells,  and  c 
cotyledon  tissues.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 


FlG.  149.     Black    Mustard.     Palisade    cells 
in    surface    view.     (MOELLER.) 


Although  of  about  the  same  size,  the  seed  is  not  reticulated,  and  is  usually 
of  a  darker  color. 

The  unequal  height  of  the  palisade  cells  (Fig.  149),  the  highest  corre- 
sponding to  the  reticulations  of  the  seed  and  the  outline  of  the  subepi- 
dermal  cells,  and  their  small  size,  are  especially  characteristic  of  black 
mustard. 

Black  Mustard  Flour,  like  that  made  from  white  mustard,  is  usually 
prepared  from  the  cake,  with  the  removal  .of  the  hulls.  It  is  a  common 
practice  to  blend  the  flour  of  both  black  and  white  mustard,  the  excess 
of  myrosin  in  the  latter  serving  to  convert  the  last  traces  of  potassium 


SAREPTA  MUSTARD.  183 

myronate  of  the  former  into  allyl  sulphocyanide.  The  flour  of  black 
mustard  consists  in  large  part  of  embryo  substance,  with  occasional  frag- 
ments of  the  hulls  (spermoderm).  The  aleurone  grains  may  be  examined 
in  oil  of  turpentine,  or,  after  the  removal  of  the  fat,  in  strong  glycerine. 
Fragments  of  the  spermoderm,  owing  to  their  darker  color,  cannot  be 
confounded  with  those  of  white  mustard.  The  palisade  cells  (Fig.  149) 
are  smaller  than  those  of  Sarepta  mustard,  rape,  charlock,  and  many 
cruciferous  seeds,  and  the  thin-walled  outer  portion  of  the  highest  of  these 
cells  forms  a  characteristic  network  of  chain-like  meshes  (Fig.  147,  se). 
Charlock  is  detected  by  the  cherry-red  color  imparted  to  fragments  of 
the  hulls  by  treatment  with  chloral  hydrate  (p.  185). 

The  common  adulterants  of  mustard  flour  are  wheat  flour  and  other 
cereal  products,  gypsum  and  other  mineral  substances,  turmeric  and 
coal-tar  dyes.  Since  mustard  contains  no  starch,  farinaceous  adulterants 
are  especially  easy  of  detection.  Turmeric  is  identified  by  the  bright 
yellow  particles  which  change  to  reddish-brown  on  treatment  with  alkali. 

Prepared  Mustard.  Mustard  paste,  also  known  as  German  or  French 
mustard,  is  a  mixture  of  flour  from  one  or  more  kinds  of  mustard  with 
spices,  salt  and  vinegar.  It  is  often  adulterated  with  starchy  matter, 
mustard  hulls,  dyes  and  preservatives. 

Black  Mustard  Hulls,  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  flour,  are  used  not  only  as  adulterants  of  mustard  paste,  but  of  pepper 
and  other  spices. 

The  palisade  cells  are  the  most  striking  elements.  The  inner  thick- 
walled  portion  of  the  layer  forms  a  brown  mosaic  (Fig.  149)  with  darker 
reticulations,  while  the  outer  thin-walled  portion  displays  a  delicate 
network  (Fig.  147). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  Bibliography  of  White  Mustard,  p.  180. 

SAREPTA   MUSTARD. 

In  Russia  the  so-called  Sarepta  mustard  (B.  Besseriana  Andr.)  is  grown 
in  considerable  quantities.  Formerly  this  species  and  Indian  mustard 
(asi-rai)  were  both  known  as  B.  juncea  Hook.  f.  et  Thorns.,  but  Prain  has 
shown  that  these  two  plants  are  distinct,  and  has  reserved  the  specific 
name  juncea  for  the  Indian  species. 

The  seed  resembles  black  mustard  except  that  it  is  somewhat  larger 
(1-1.8  mm.).  Distinct  reticulations  are  clearly  seen  under  a  lens. 


1 84  OIL  SEEDS. 

In  microscopic  structure  also,  the  seed  agrees  in  most  points  with 
black  mustard;  the  palisade  cells,  however,  are  somewhat  wider  (often 
triangular)  and  the  subepidermal  layer  is  much  less  distinct,  often  being 
entirely  obliterated. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  Bibliography  of  Cruciferae,  p.  176:  Bohmer;    Kinzel. 

TICHOMIROW:   Die  Struktur  der  Samenschale  von  Brassica  juncea  Hook.     Pharm. 
Centralh.  1900,  41,  510. 


CHARLOCK. 

Grain  fields,  both  of  the  Old  and  New  World,  are  often  infested  by 
charlock  (Brassica  Sinapistrum  Boiss.,  Sinapis  arvensis  L.),  a  crucif- 
erous plant  with  bright  yellow  flowers.  Charlock  is  especially  abundant 
in  the  wheat  fields  of  North  and  South  Dakota,  Minnesota,  and  adjoining 
states,  the  seeds  being  almost  always  present  in  screenings  from  this  region. 
A  product  known  in  the  trade  as  Dakota  mustard  consists  largely  of  the 
seeds  of  this  plant  separated  from  screenings. 

The  deep  brown,  nearly  black,  seeds  of  charlock  are  1-1.5  mm-  *n 
diameter.  They  have  a  dull  surface,  but  do  not  appear  reticulated,  even 
under  a  lens. 

HISTOLOGY. 

This  seed  differs  from  other  cruciferous  seeds  in  the  structure  of  the 
mucilaginous  substance  of  the  epidermis,  and  the  nature  of  the  contents 
of  the  palisade  cells. 

Spermoderm.  i.  The  Epidermal  Cells  are  40-75  /*  in  diameter. 
Cross  sections  mounted  in  alcohol  and  treated  cautiously  with  water  dis- 
play well-defined  radial  walls  and  a  radially  striated  mucilaginous  deposit. 
This  latter,  in  surface  view,  has  a  delicately  reticulated  structure  with  a 
central  cavity;  the  reticulations  are  much  the  same  in  size  as  those  formed 
by  the  outer  radial  walls  of  the  palisade  cells,  but  are  not  so  distinct,  and 
disappear  entirely  on  adding  sufficient  water. 

Harz  first  called  attention  to  this  structure,  and  Gram  shows  it  clearly 
in  his  figures. 

2.  Subepidermal  Layer.    According  to  these  last  named  authors,  this 
coat  consists  of  two  compressed  layers,  but  scarcely  any  evidence  of  cellular 
structure  is  apparent  in  the  mature  seed. 

3.  Palisade  Cells.     Seen  from  without,  this  layer  differs  from  the  pali- 


COMMON  RAPE.  185 

sade  cells  of  other  crucifers  in  that  the  thickened  radial  walls  are 
hidden  from  view  by  the  dark  brown  contents  which  fills  the  cell. 
Waage  first  noted  that  the  hulls  of  charlock  assume  a  blood-red  color 
on  treatment  with  chloral  hydrate.  This  characteristic  reaction,  due  to 
the  contents  of  the  palisade  cells,  is  hastened  by  heating. 

Cross  sections  show  that  the  cells  are  uniform  in  height,  the  radial 
walls  being  thickened  for  only  three-fourths  of  their  length.  Heating 
with  chloral  hydrate  causes  the  outer  thin-walled  portion  to  assume  its 
normal  shape,  and  colors  the  material  contained  in  both  the  inner  and  outer 
portions  of  the  cells  a  beautiful  blood-red  hue,  contrasting  strikingly  with 
the  yellow-brown  color  of  the  sclerenchyma  walls  and  the  pigment  layer. 

4.  Pigment  Layer.  A  single  row  of  pigment  cells  is  present.  Although 
the  contents  are  yellowish -brown,  the  dark  color  of  the  seed  is  due  solely 
to  the  material  in  the  palisade  cells. 

Endosperm  and  Embryo  are  much  the  same  as  in  black  mustard. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  dark,  nearly  black  color  of  the  seeds  and  the  absence  of  reticula- 
tions on  the  surface  distinguish  charlock  from  black  mustard;  the  smaller 
size  of  the  seeds  distinguishes  it  from  rape.  The  delicately  reticulated 
appearance  of  the  mucilaginous  substance  in  the  epidermis  is  charac- 
teristic, but  not  always  clearly  evident.  Especially  striking  are  the  dark 
contents  of  the  palisade  cells,  which  become  blood-red  on  heating  with 
chloral  hydrate. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  Bibliography  of  Cruciferae,  p.  176:  Bohmer;  Burchard;  Collin  et  Perrot;  Gram; 
Pieters  and  Charles. 


COMMON    RAPE. 

Of  the  cruciferous  seeds  utilized  for  oil  and  cattle  food,  not  for  con- 
diments, common  rape,  also  known  as  colza,  (Brassica  Nafus  L.)  is 
the  best  known  in  Europe.  Before  the  advent  of  petroleum  and  coal 
gas,  rape  oil  was  burned  for  illuminating  purposes;  but  at  the  present 
time  it  is  used  chiefly  as  a  lubricant  and  for  making  soap.  As  the  cake 
yields  but  a  small  amount  of  volatile  mustard  oil,  it  is  well  adapted  for 
feeding  animals. 

Rape  is  grown  chiefly  in  Germany,   Russia,  and  Austria-Hungary, 


1 86  OIL  SEEDS. 

to  a  limited  extent  in  France  and  Belgium,  but  seldom  in  America.     There 
are  summer  and  winter  varieties. 

The  seed  is  globular,  1.5-2.5  mm.  in  diameter  and  is  of  a  dark  brown, 
almost  black  color.  On  the  surface  it  is  dull  but  never  reticulated,  even 
under  a  lens,  a  striking  distinction  from  the  seeds  of  black  mustard. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Rape  corresponds  in  general  structure  to  black  mustard,  but  the 
Epidermis  and  the  Subepidermal  Layer  of  the  ripe  seed  form  an  indis- 
tinct coat  with  little  or  no  evidence  of  cellular  structure. 

The  Palisade  Cells  are  of  nearly  uniform  height,  hence  the  absence 
of  reticulation  such  as  occur  on  the  seeds  of  black  and  Sarepta  mustard. 
Another  striking  distinction  from  the  mustards  lies  in  the  larger  size 
of  the  palisade  cells,  which,  as  seen  in  surface  view,  have  an  average 
diameter  of  20  /*  and  often  reach  30  /*. 

Harz  states  that  the  diameter  of  the  lumen  of  each  cell  is  about  as 
great  as  the  breadth  of  the  double  walls,  whereas  in  German  rape  the 
lumen  is  usually  narrower.  Hanausek  and  Gram  confirm  this  distinc- 
tion, but  Collin  and  Perrot  state  that  the  lumen  in  German  rape  is 
the  larger.  Pieters  and  Charles  place  chief  dependence  on  the  more 
regular  height  of  the  palisade  cells  which  varies  not  more  than  3  >JL,  while 
in  German  rape  it  varies  from  5-7  /*. 

The  faintly  reticulated  appearance  of  the  spermoderm  of  German 
rape  which  Collin  and  Perrot  regard  as  the  chief  means  of  distinction, 
is  explained  by  the  variation  in  the  height  of  the  palisade  cells. 

The  remaining  coats  of  the  spermoderm,  also  the  endosperm  and 
embryo  agree  in  structure  with  the  corresponding  coats  of  black  mustard, 
though  myrosin  cells  are  less  numerous  in  the  embryo. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  characters  of  chief  use  in  diagnosis  are  the  large  size  of  the  pali- 
sade cells  (maximum  diameter  30  //),  their  uniform  height,  and  the  con- 
sequent absence  of  reticulations.  Epidermal  cells  are'  seldom  distin- 
guishable. Among  the  foreign  seeds  of  rape  cake  are  false  flax  (Came- 
Una  sativa),  treacle  mustard  (Erysimum  orientate),  wild  radish  (Raphanus 
Raphanistrum),  charlock  (Sinapis  arvensis),  hedge  mustard  (Sisym- 
brium  officinale  and  S.  Sophia),  penny-cress  (Thlaspi  arvense),  shepherd's 
purse  (Capsella  Bursa-Pastoris),  peppergrass  (Lepidium  campestre],  and 
other  cruciferous  seeds. 


GERMAN  RAPE.     INDIAN  COLZA.  187 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Beneke  (2);  Bohmer  (6,  10,  23);  Collin 
et  Perrot  (9);  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (17,  48);  Harz  (18);  Hassall  (19);  Moeller  (29). 

Also  see  Bibliography  of  Cruciferae,  p.  176:  Burchard;  Claes  et  Thyes;  Gram; 
Kobus;  Pieters  and  Charles;  Schroder;  Sempolowski;  etc. 


GERMAN    RAPE. 

The  varieties  of  German  rape  (Brassica  Rapa  L.),  known  in  Germany 
as  Riibsen,  are  put  to  the  same  uses  as  common  rape. 

The  differences  in  microscopic  structure  of  the  two  species  are  noted 
under  common  rape. 

INDIAN    COLZA. 

Sarson,  or  Indian  colza  (Brassica  campestris  L.  var.  Sarson  Prain, 
Sinapis  glauca  Roxb.),  has  both  white  and  brown  seeded  varieties, 
although  the  latter  are  rare.  The  seeds  have  been  introduced  into  Europe 
as  adulterants  of  white  mustard,  which  they  closely  resemble.  Kinzel 
believes  that  the  "Guzerat'Raps"  of  Wittmark  belongs  under  this  variety, 
and  it  is  probable  that  the  same  is  true  of  the  yellow  Indian  rape  described 
by  Steffeck  and  the  false  white  mustard  to  which  Harz  gave  the  name 
B.  Iberijolia.  The  seed  is  without  reticulations,  and  in  general  appear- 
ance closely  resembles  white  mustard. 

Unlike  white  mustard,  the  epidermis  forms  a  homogeneous  layer 
without  evident  division  into  cells,  and  the  subepidermal  layer  is  en- 
tirely lacking.  In  some,  if  not  all  varieties,  the  palisade  cells  are  broader 
than  in  white  mustard,"  being  about  the  same  size  as  in  common  rape. 

The  cake  from  this  and  the  three  following  oil  seeds  is  imported  into 
Europe  from  India. 

According  to  Kinzel,  the  chief  impurity  is  the  black  triangular  seeds 
of  Asphodelus  tenuifolius,  which  resemble  the  fruits  of  black  bindweed 
(Polygonum  Convolvulus),  except  that  they  are  transversely '  wrinkled. 
The  epidermis  obtained  by  scraping  the  opaque  spermoderm  is  char- 
acterized by  the  thin  lamellae,  which  appear  like  4-6  concentric  circles. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  Bibliography  of  Cruciferae,  p.  176:  Kinzel. 


1 88  OIL  SEEDS. 


BROWN    INDIAN    RAPE. 

According  to  Prain,  tori  or  brown  Indian  rape  is  Brassica  Napus 
L.  var.  dichoioma  Prain. 

It  is  grown  both  as  an  oil  seed  and  as  a  vegetable. 

Kinzel  states  that  the  epidermis  in  cross  section  does  not  appear 
cellular,  and  that  the  aleurone  cells  are  often  in  two  layers.  He  further 
notes  that  the  highest  palisade  cells  form  conspicuous  but  very  narrow 
reticulations,  and  that  the  lumens  of  the  palisade  cells  are  as  broad  as 
those  of  European  rape. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  Bibliography  of  Cruciferae,  p.  176:  Kinzel. 


INDIAN    MUSTARD. 

The  Indian  plant  asi-rai,  according  to  Prain  and  Kinzel,  is  Brassica 
juncea  Hook.  f.  et  Thorns.  It  yields  a  brown  seed  much  like  that  of 
black  mustard,  although  somewhat  larger.  The  meshes  on  the  surface 
are  distinctly  seen  with  the  aid  of  a  lens. 

Unlike  Sarepta  mustard,  the  epidermis  does  not  have  an  evident 
cellular  structure. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  Bibliography  of  Cruciferae,  p.  176:  Kinzel. 

PALAI    RAPE. 

The  seeds  of  the  plant  known  in  India  as  palai,  palangi  or  pahari  rai, 
etc.  (Brassica  rugosa  Prain)  are  brown  and  finely  reticulated. 

According  to  Kinzel,  this  species  is  distinguished  from  all  other 
Indian  rapes  by  the  cellular  strcuture  of  the  epidermis!  Treated  with 
sulphuric  acid  and  alkali,  the  palisade  cells  are  of  a  more  yellow-browrn 
color  than  in  other  varieties. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  Bibliography  of  Cruciferae,  p.  176:  Kinzel. 


DISSECTED  MUSTARD.     ERUC/t.     FALSE  FLAX.  189 

DISSECTED  MUSTARD. 

Kinzel  states  that  the  seeds  of  Sinapis  dissecta  Lagasca  (Brassica 
dissecta  Boiss.)  frequently  occur  in  Russian  linseed  and  rape  seed,  as 
well  as  in  the  cake  made  from  these  seeds. 

Burchard  finds  that  the  histological  structure  is  very  similar  to  that 
of  white  mustard,  the  chief  differences  being  that  the  palisade  and  pig- 
ment layers  contain  a  brown  pigment,  and  the  palisade  layer  displays 
narrow  reticulations,  due  to  the  unequal  height  of  the  cells. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  Bibliography  of  Cruciferae,  p.  176:  Bohmer;    Burchard;    Gram;    Kinzel. 


ERUCA. 

This  plant  (Eruca  sativa  Lam.)  is  a  common  weed  in  Southern  Europe 
and   India.     The   seeds  are  usually  yellow,   but   occasionally  are  red- 
yellow  or  mottled  with  green-brown  spots.     The  spermoderm  is  smooth. 
Gram  notes  the  following  points  with  regard  to  the  histological  structure: 
The  epidermal  cells  contain  mucilaginous  substance  in  layers  with  axial 
columns.     The  double  contour  of  the  walls  as  seen  in  surface  view  is 
due  to  a  thickening  of  the  outer  walls  at  the  edges  of  the  cells.     No  sub- 
epidermal  layer  is   evident.     The  palisade   layer  has  thickened   radial 
walls  only  in  its  inner  half,  where  the  double  walls  are  about  the  thick- 
ness of  the  lumen. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  Bibliography  of  Cruciferae,  p.  176:  Bohmer;    Collin  et  Perrot;    Gram. 


FALSE    FLAX. 

In  Germany,  Holland,  and  some  other  countries,  false  flax  (Camelina 
sativa  L.)  is  sparingly  grown  for  its  seed,  which  yields  oil  and  cake.  It 
also  occurs  as  a  weed  in  flax  fields  and  the  seed  as  an  impurity  of  lin- 
seed and  rape  seed. 

The  brown  seed  (Fig.  150)  is  1.5  mm.  long  and  about  half  as  broad, 
its  surface  being  finely  granulated  but  not  reticulated.  A  pronounced 
longitudinal  ridge  marks  the  position  of  the  radicle. 


igo 


OIL  SEEDS. 


HISTOLOGY. 

The  Spermoderm  (Fig.  151)  consists  of  epidermis,  palisade  cells, 
and  an  inner  layer  corresponding  to  the  pigment  layer  of  the  mustards 

and  rapes.     There  is  no  evidence  of  a  sub- 
epidermal  layer  in  the  ripe  seed. 

i.  The  Epidermal  Cells  are  on  the  average 
50  fi  broad,  but  often  reach  100  /*.  They 
are  characterized  by  the  presence  in  each 
cell  of  an  axial  column  of  mucilaginous  sub- 
stance which,  on  the  addition  of  water,  bursts 
through  the  outer  wall  in  the  form  of  a  long 
tapering  cylinder. 

2.  The  Palisade  Cells  are  readily  seen  through  the  transparent  epi- 
dermis. Their  average  breadth  is  45  //,  their  maximum  90  /*.  The 
double  radial  walls  are  15-20  //  thick,  but  only  about  15  //  high. 


FIG.  150.  False  Flax  (Came- 
lina  saliva}.  Seeds,  natural 
size  and  enlarged.  (NOBBE.) 


FIG.  151.     False  Flax.     Outer  epidermis  and  palisade  cells,  in  surface  view.     (MOELLE&.) 

3.  The  Inner  Layers  of  the  spermoderm,  corresponding  to  the  pig- 
ment cells  of  allied  seeds,  consist  of  compressed  cells,  which  are  clearly 
evident  in  cross  section  only  after  treatment  with  chloral  hydrate. 

The  Endosperm  and  Embryo  are  practically  the  same  as  in  the  mus- 
tards, except  that  the  aleurone  grains  of  the  embryo  seldom  exceed  5  /*. 


HEDGE  MUSTARD.     SHEPHERD'S  PURSE.  191 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Seeds  and  cake  of  false  flax  are  identified  by  the  long  tapering 
mucilage  column  which  bursts  through  the  outer  epiderims  on  the  addi- 
tion of  water,  also  by  the  broad,  low  palisade  cells  (Fig.  151). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Benecke  (2);  'Bohmer  (6,  10,  23);  Collin 
et  Perrot  (9);  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (17,  48);  Harz  (18). 

Also  see  Bibliography  of  Cruciferae,  p.  176:  Gram;  Kobus;  Sempolowski. 
NEVINNY:  Die  Samen  von  Camelina  saliva.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  u.  Hyg.  1887,  1,  85. 
VAN  PESCH:  Leindotter-Ku'chen.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1892,  41,  94. 

HEDGE   nUSTARD. 

Sisymbrium  officinale  Scop.,  S.  Sophia  L.,  and  other  species  of  this 
genus,  known  as  hedge  mustard  and  by  other  names,  are  common  weeds 
in  both  Europe  and  America. 

The  brown  seeds  are  minute  and  more  or  less  irregular  in  shape. 

Gram  notes  that  the  epidermis  in  S.  officinale  contains  a  mucilaginous 
substance  in  layers,  with  an  axial  column  in  each  cell  which  does  not 
readily  escape  on  addition  of  water,  also  that  the  palisade  cells  are  thick- 
ened only  at  the  very  inner  ends. 

According  to  the  same  author  the  seeds  of  S.  Sophia  are  very  similar 
to  those  of  shepherd's  purse,  but  the  palisade  cells  are  not  so  broad. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  Bibliography  of  Cruciferae,  p.  176:  Bohmer;    Gram. 

SHEPHERD'S  PURSE. 

Shepherd's  purse  (Capsella  Bursa-Pastoris  Moench)  has  a  seed  of 
much  the  same  shape  and  color  as  false  flax,  but  of  about  half  the  dimen- 
sions. 

The  two  seeds  are  also  similar  in  structure,  but  in  shepherd's  purse 
the  mucilage  columns  seldom  burst  out  of  the  epidermis,  and  the  palisade 
cells  are  not  so  broad,  the  average  diameter  being  30  //,  the  maximum 
60  [i. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bohmer  (6,  10,  23);  also  of  Cruciferae> 
p.  176:  Gram. 


192  OIL   SEEDS. 

WILD    PEPPERGRASS. 

Several  species  of  Lepidium,  notably  L.  campestre  Br.  and  L.  sativum 
L.,  are  common  weeds.  The  small  seeds  are  brown  in  color  'and  more 
or  less  flattened. 

In  microscopic  structure,  the  species  named  are  characterized  by 
the  mucilage  column,  which,  especially  after  it  has  burst  out  of  the  cell, 
is  broadened  at  the  end.  The  palisade  cells  of  L.  campestre  are  unusually 
high. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  Bibliography  of  Cruciferae,  p.  176:  Bohmer;   Gram. 

FIELD    PENNYCRESS. 

According  to  Bohmer  and  Gram,  the  seeds  of  this  common  weed 
(Thlaspi  arvense  L.)  frequently  occur  in  linseed 
and  rape  cake  (Fig.  152). 

The    epidermis    and    parenchymatous    second 
layer  form    a  membrane    of  obliterated  cells  over 
the  palisade  layer.     In  cross  section  the  palisade 
cells    are    of   unequal    height    and    have    strongly 
FIG.  152.     Field    Penny-  thickened  inner  and  side  walls.     Their  appearance 

cress  (Thlaspi  arvense).    .  .  .  ,  .   ,  ,        ,  .     .  . 

a  and  b  seed  enlarged;  m  surface  view   is   highly  characteristic,  owing  to 
c    seed    natural    size.  tne  arrangement  of  the  high  cells   in   longitudinal 
rows  forming  parallel  ribs  of  a  darker  color  than 
the  intervening  channels. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  Bibliography  of  Cruciferae,  p.  176:  Bohmer;    Gram. 

TREACLE    flUSTARD. 

Seeds  of  this  weed  (Erysimum  orientale  R.  Br.)  occur  in  rape  seed 
from  both  Europe  and  India.  They  are  dull  brown,  and  have  a  nearly 
smooth  spermoderm. 

Gram's  figures  show  the  following  details: 

The  epidermal  cells  contain  mucilage  which  escapes  from  each  as 
a  long  conical  body.  The  thickened  radial  walls  are  punctured  with 
radially  elongated  pores,  and  as  a  consequence  appear  toothed  in  surface 


WILD  RADISH.     WINTER  CRESS.  193 

view,  and  scalariform  in  section.     The  palisade  cells  have  broad  lumens 
and  are  seldom  thickened  except  at  the  inner  ends. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY . 

See  Bibliography  of  Cruciferae,  p.  176:  Bohmer;   Gram. 

WILD    RADISH. 

Gram  finds  seeds  of  the  wild  radish  (Raphanus  Raphanistrum  L.) 
in  small  amounts  in  European  rape  cake.  The  seeds  are  globular, 
much  larger  than  those  of  rape,  from  which  they  are  further  distinguished 
by  their  red-yellow  color.  The  epidermal  and  subepidermal  cells  are 
broad,  and  the  latter  have  collenchymatously  thickened  angles.  The 
palisade  cells  are  rather  low,  and  of  unequal  height.  In  surface  view 
they  display  moderately  distinct  reticulations.  The  lumen  is  usually 
thicker  than  the  walls. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  Bibliography  of  Cruciferae,  p.  176:  Gram. 

WINTER   CRESS. 

The  brown-gray,  smooth  seeds  of  Barbarea  vulgaris  R.  Br.,  are  occa- 
sionally present  in  rape  seed. 

The  mucilage  is  situated  in  the  outer  portion  of  each  epidermal  cell, 
extending  inward  at  the  sides.  The  radial  walls  are  often  thickened. 
In  some  seeds  the  subepidermal  coat  is  not  evident,  in  others  it  consists 
of  one,  or  seldom  two,  layers. 

Characteristic  of  the  palisade  cells  are  their  large  size,  large  lumen, 
and  the  single  crystal,  less  often  the  crystal  cluster,  present  in  each. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  Bibliography  of  Cruciferae,  p.  176;  Gram. 


COMPOSITE    OIL    FRUITS    (Composite). 

The  fruits  (achenes)  of  the  sunflower,  the  tarweed  (madia),  and  the 
niger  plant  are  of  local  importance.  They  are  characterized  by  the 
leathery  pericarp,  with  strongly  developed  bast-fiber  bundles,  also  by 
the  black  pigment  plates  which  cover  these  bundles.  The  species  are 
easily  distinguished  by  certain  layers  of  the  pericarp  and  spermoderm 
described  under  each. 


1 94 


OIL  SEEDS. 


SUNFLOWER. 

Although  a  native  of  tropical  America,  the  sunflower  (Helianthus 
annuus  L.)  is  grown  for  its  oleaginous  seed  chiefly  in  Europe  and  Asia. 
In  Russia,  Hungary,  Italy,  and  India,  sunflower  oil  is  used  both  as  a 
human  food  and  in  the  arts,  and  the  cake  is  fed  to  farm  animals.  The 
sunflower  is  cultivated  in  other  countries  chiefly  for  bird  seed  or  as  an 
ornamental  plant. 

The  obovoid  achenes  are  more  or  less  four-sided  and  flattened.  Al- 
though variable  in  size,  they  are  seldom  less  than  10  mm.  long.  In 
some  varieties  the  pericarp  is  nearly  black,  in  others,  striped  with  black 
and  white. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  Pericarp  (Fig.  153)  is  dry  and  brittle,  and  may  be  readily 
separated  from  the  seed. 

h 


m 

FIG.  153.  Sunflower  (Helianthus  annuus).  Cross  section  of  outer  layers  of  pericarp. 
o  epicarp  with  h  hairs;  K  hypoderm;  H  fiber  bundles  separated  by  m  parenchyma; 
p  parenchyma  with  g  fibre-vascular  bundle.  X  160.  (MOELLER.) 

i.  The  Epicarp  Cells  (Fig.  153,  0;  Fig.  154)  are  large,  usually  elonga- 
ted, with  rather  thick,  porous  walls.     Stomata  are  absent.     Dark-colored 


SUNFLOWER.  195 

contents  are  present  throughout  in  black  seeds,  but  only  in  some  of  the 
cells  of  striped  seeds.  Characteristic  of  this  fruit  are  the  broad,  thin- 
walled  hairs  (h),  usually  in  pairs,  most  of  which,  however,  are  broken  off 
in  cleaning  the  seed.  As  a  rule,  the  members  of  each  pair  are  united  for 
nearly  their  entire  length.  T.  F.  Hanausek  has  found  that  these  hairs 
are  attached  at  their  bases  to  a  specially  differentiated  cell  of  the  epi- 


FIG.   154.      Sunflower.      Epicarp   with  h 
twin  hairs,   in   surface  view.     (MoEL- 

LER.) 


FIG.   155.      Sunflower.      Fibers    of   peri- 
carp in  surface  view.      Xi6o.    (MoEL- 

LER.) 


dermis,  known  as  a  "foot  cell,"  one  hair  being  seated  directly  on  this 
foot  cell,  the  other  attached  to  its  side. 

2.  Hypoderm   (Fig.   153,   K\     Fig.    155).     Three  or  more  layers  of 
cells  characterized  by  their  numerous  minute  pores  form  this  coat.      In 
cross  section  the   cells,   like   cork  cells,   are   quadrilateral   and   arranged 
in  radial  rows. 

3.  Humus  Cells.     As  is  true  of  madia  and  niger  fruits,  the  pericarp 


196  OIL  SEEDS. 

of  varieties  of  sunflower  with  dark  or  striped  seeds,  has  a  deposit  of  pitch- 
like  substance  between  the  hypoderm  and  the  fiber  bundles.  Fig.  153 
shows  a  section  of  a  fruit  in  which  this  deposit  was  not  present.  This 
material  was  at  one  time  regarded  as  an  intercellular  deposit,  but  has 
recently  been  shown  by  T.  F.  Hanausek  to  consist  of  a  layer  of  cells, 
disorganized  through  what  appears  to  be  a  humification  process.  In 
the  early  stages  of  growth  the  loosely  arranged  elongated  cells  bear  numer- 
ous minute  protuberances  on  the  outer  and  radial  walls,  which  undergo  the 
process  of  disorganization  before  the  cell  proper.  This  observation  led 
him  to  surmise  that  the  change  was  due  to  oxidation,  the  air  spaces  formed 
by  the  protuberances  facilitating  the  absorption  of  oxygen. 

4.  The  Fiber  Bundles  (Fig.  153,  H;   Fig.  155)  consist  of  several  layers 
of  longitudinally  arranged  fibers.     Proceeding  from  without  inward,  the 
cells  increase  in  size;   the  porous  walls  diminish  in  thickness.     Not  only 
are  these  bundles  larger  than  in  madia  and  niger,  but  the  elements  are 
broader  and  have  much  broader  lumens  (often  50  //).     The  bundles  are 
separated  by  radial  rows  of  thin-walled  cells  (Fig.  153,  m)  reminding  one 
of  medullary  rays,  and  each  adjoins  on  its  inner  side  a  small  vascular 
bundle. 

5.  Parenchyma  (p).    An  exceedingly  thin- walled,  loose  parenchyma 
completes  the  pericarp.     In  the  ripe  seed  the  cells  are  much  compressed, 
forming  a  white,  papery  tissue. 

Spermoderm.  A  delicate  membrane,  consisting  of  spermoderm  and 
endosperm,  closely  envelops  the  seed. 

1.  The  Outer  Epidermis  (Fig.  156)  as  seen  in  surface  view  consists 
of  rounded  cells  about  50  ^  in  diameter,  with  rather  thick,  obscurely 
beaded   walls. 

2.  Spongy  Parenchyma,  through   which   ramify   the   bundles   of   the 
raphe  and  its  branches,  forms  the  middle  layer. 

3.  An  Inner  Epidermis  of  more  or  less  rectangular  cells  8-20  /j.  in 
diameter,  may  be  seen  in  section  on  heating  with  chloral,  and  in  surface 
view  without  treatment  with  reagents. 

Endosperm  (Fig.  156).  One,  sometimes  two,  layers  of  typical  aleu- 
rone  cells  15-50  /*  in  diameter  are  readily  found,  both  in  cross  sections 
and  in  surface  mounts.  Rectangular  cells  predominate,  although  triangu- 
lar and  polygonal  forms  also  occur. 

The  Embryo  (Fig.  157)  consists  of  two  folded  cotyledons  and  a  short 
radicle.  The  folded  cotyledons  have  several  rows  of  palisade  cells  ad- 
joining the  inner  epidermis — the  upper  epidermis  after  unfolding.  These 


MADIA  SEED. 


197 


contain   irregularly  spherical   aleurone   grains   3-12  /*    in   diameter,  and 
fat  globules.     Only  small  aleurone  grains  occur  in  the  epidermal  cells. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

As  sunflower  achenes  are  shelled  before  expressing  the  oil,  the  cake 
contains  only  such  fragments  of  the  pericarp  as  escape  separation.     These 


-  p 


FIG.  156.  Sunflower.  Outer  epidermis 
of  spermoderm  (below)  and  aleurone 
cells  of  endosperm  (above),  in  surface 
view.  (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  157.  Sunflower.  Cross  section  of 
cotyledon,  o  epidermis;  p  palisade 
cells;  m  isodiametric  cells.  (MOELLER.) 


are  readily  identified  by  the  twin-hairs  (Fig.  1 54) ,  the  cork-like  hypoderm 
with  numerous  fine  pores,  and  the  large  fibers  (Fig.  155). 

The  spermoderm,  endosperm,  and  embryo  do  not  possess  any  char- 
acteristic tissues  (Figs  156  and  157). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Benecke  (2);  Bohmer  (6,  10,  23);  Collin  (8); 
Hanausek,  T.  F.  (17,  48);    Harz  (18);   Moeller  (29). 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Zur  Entwicklungsgeschichte  des  Perikarps  von  Helianthus  annum. 

Ber.  deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.  1902,  20,  449. 
HEINECK:  Beitrag  zur  Kenntniss  des  feineren  Baues  der  Fruchtschalen  der  Compositen. 

Inaug.-Diss.  Giessen.     1890. 

KOBUS:  Kraftfutter  und  seiner  Verfalschung.     Landw.  Jahrb.  1884,  13,  813. 
KRAUS:  Ueber  den  Bau  der  trockner  Perikarpien.     Inaug.-Diss.  Leipzig,  1866,  66, 
PFISTER:  Oelliefernde  Kompositenfruchte.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1894,  43,  441. 


flADIA   SEED. 

Common  tarweed,  known   in  Chili  as  "Madi"  (Madia  saliva  MoL), 
is  one  of  several  species  of  this  genus  natives  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  North 


198 


OIL  SEEDS. 


and  South  America.     It  is  cultivated  as  an  oil  seed  in  parts  of  the  Ameri- 
can continent  and  more  extensively  in  Germany. 

The  slender,  ribbed  achenes,  4-8  mm.  long,  2  mm.  wide  at  the  apex 
tapering  to  the  base,  are  borne  in  heads  3-6  cm.  in  diameter.  The 
achenes  are  usually  light  in  color,  but  sometimes  are  nearly  black. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp  (Fig.  158,  F\  Fig.  159).  i.  Epicarp  (ep).  The  cells 
are  longitudinally  elongated,  variable  in  size,  with  colorless,  distinctly 
beaded  walls  and  a  thickened  cuticle. 


al 


FIG.  158.  Madia  (Madia  saliva}.  Cross  section  of  fruit.  jP  pericarp  consists  of  ep 
epicarp,  hy  hypoderm,  br  pigment  plates,  /  fiber  bundles,  m  partitions,  and  p  paren- 
chyma; 6"  spermoderm,  with  .Rraphe;  £  endosperm;  C  cotyledon  containing  al  aleurone 
grains.  Xi6o.  (WiNTON.) 

2.  Hypoderm  (hy).    Thin- walled  more  or  less  collapsed  cells  form 
the  second  layer. 

3.  Pigment  Plates  (br).    As  in  niger  seed  and  some  varieties  of  sun- 
flower, the  fiber  bundles  are  covered  with  dark-colored  plates  of  a  ma- 
terial insoluble  in  all  the  common  reagents,  including  boiling  alkali.     In 
surface  view  the  markings,  resembling  those  of  a  tortoise  shell,  which  are 
due  to  the  variable  thickness  of  the  pigment  material,  and  the  rows  of 
minute  pores  appearing  as  light  spots  in  the  dark  field,  make  this  layer 
the  most  striking  in  the  fruit. 

4.  Fiber  Bundles  (/).     The  fibers  are  5-15  p  in  diameter  and  often 
are  i  mm.  long,  being  smallest  in  the  outer  layers.     Between  the  bundles 
are  groups  of  thin-walled,  more  or  less  longitudinally  elongated  cells, 
forming  wedge-shaped  partitions  (m). 

5.  Parenchyma  (p).     Several  rows  of  partially  collapsed  parenchyma 
cells  form  the  inner  layers  of  the  pericarp. 


MADIA  SEED 


199 


The  Spermoderm  (Figs.  158  and  159,  S)  consists  of  one  distinct  layer 
of  parenchyma  cells  without  any  striking  characters,  and  other  less  dis- 
tinct layers  near  the  raphe  bundles. 

Curiously  shaped,  pitted  cells  (Fig.  159,  so),  some  nearly  isodiametric, 
others  greatly  elongated,  are  present  at  the  base  of  the  seed,  the  longer 


End 


FIG.  159.  Madia.  Elements  of  fruit  in  surface  view,  ep  epicarp;  hy  hypoderm;  br 
pigment  plates;  /  fiber  bundle;  51  spermoderm  with  R  raphe  bundle;  sc  pitted  cells 
at  base  of  spermoderm;  End  endosperm.  Xi6o.  (WiNTON.) 

forms  extending  in  bundles  toward  the  apex.  These  bundles  appear 
to  be  distinct  from  the  raphe  and  its  ramifications. 

The  Endosperm  (Figs.  158  and  159,  E)  is  represented  by  a  single 
layer  of  thick-walled,  often  quadrilateral,  aleu rone-cells. 

Embryo.  Beneath  the  outer  epidermis  of  the  folded  cotyledons 
(Fig.  158,  C)  are  several  layers  of  isodiametric  cells,  but  adjoining  the  inner 
epidermis  are  three  to  four  layers  of  typical  palisade  cells.  Aleurone 
grains  (2-6  /*)  and  fat  are  the  only  visible  contents. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Madia  fruit  has  much  the  same  structure  as  sunflower  and  niger 
fruits;  but  is  distinguished  from  the  former  by  having  no  hairs  on  the 
epicarp  (Fig.  159,  ep),  a  single  layer  of  hypodermal  cells,  and  fibers 
(/)  with  relatively  small  diameters;  while  it  differs  from  niger  seeds  in 
having  the  walls  of  the  epicarp  beaded,  an  inconspicuous  hypoderm  layer 
(no  rail-shape  cells),  and  the  walls  of  the  spermoderm  (S)  straight  and 
non-porous. 


200  OIL  SEEDS. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Benecke  (2);  Bohmer  (6, 10,  23);  Collin  (8); 
Hanausek,  T.  F.  (17,  48);  Harz  (18). 

PFISTER:  Oelliefernde  Kompositenfriichte.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1894,  43,  441. 
WINTON  :  The  Anatomy  of  Certain  Oil  Seeds  with  Especial  Reference  to  the  Microscopic 
Examination  of  Cattle  Foods.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1903,  175. 

NIGER   SEED. 

The  fruit  of  Guizotia  Abyssinica  (L)  Cass.  (G.  oleifera  D.C.),  a 
composite  plant,  is  an  important  oil  seed  in  Abyssinia,  its  native  country, 
and  also  in  India.  It  has  been  introduced  into  Europe  and  America,  but 
has  'not  been  extensively  cultivated  as  yet. 

The  black  achenes  are  shaped  like  those  of  madia,  but  are  much 
smaller,  seldom  over  5  mm.  long  and  i  mm.  broad  at  the  apex. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp  (Fig.  160,  F',  Fig.  161).  i.  The  Epicarp  cells  (ep)  are  dis- 
tinguished from  those  of  madia  by  their  greater  length  and  the  absence 
of  pores. 

2.  Hypoderm  (hy).  Pfister  has  shown  that  the  isolated,  longitudi- 
nally elongated  cells  of  this  layer  are  shaped  like  railway  rails,  resembling 


FlG.  1 60.  Niger  Seed  (Guizotia  Abyssinica).  Cross  section  of  hull.  F  pericarp  consists 
of  ep  epicarp,  hy  hypoderm,  br  pigment  plates,  /  fiber  bundles,  m  partitions  and  p  paren- 
chyma; 5"  spermoderm;  E  endosperm.  X3OO.  (WiNTON.) 

in  cross  section  the  hour-glass  cells  of  the  legumes.     The  color  of  the 
seed  is  largely  due  to  the  black  pigment  in  this  layer. 

3.  The  Pigment  Plates  (br)  are  similar  to  those  of  madia  seed,  but 
the  cross  markings  are  nearer  together  and  not  so  distinct. 

4.  The  Fiber  Bundles   (/)   are  smaller  than   the   similar  bundles  of 
madia,  and  the  individual  fibers,  are  narrower. 

5.  Parenchyma.     The  partitions  between  the   fiber   bundles  (m),  and 
also  the  inner  layers  of  the  pericarp  (p),  consist  of  parenchyma  cells  which, 
in  the  layers  adjoining  the  spermoderm,  are  usually  compressed. 


NIGER  SEED. 


201 


Spermoderm.  i.  Reticulated  Cells  (Figs  160  and  161,  S).  Charac- 
teristic of  this  seed  are  the  reticulated  cells  with  wavy  side  walls,  forming 
the  outer  layer  of  the  spermoderm. 

2.  Inner  Layers.  One  or  more  layers  of  obliterated  cells  form  the 
inner  spermoderm. 

Endosperm   (Fig.   160  and   161,  E).     As  in  madia,  the  endosperm 


ep 


FIG.   161.     Niger  Seed.     Pericarp,  spermoderm  and  endosperm  in  surface  view,     ep  epi- 
carp;  hy  hypoderm;   br  pigment  plates;  /  fiber  bundle;  S  spermoderm;  E  endosperm. 

X  300.       (WlNTON.) 

consists  of  a  single  layer  of  thick-walled  aleurone  cells,  often  of  retangular 
outline. 

Embryo.  The  thin-walled  cells  of  the  embryo  contain  aleurone 
grains  and  fat,  and  are  not  distinguishable  from  those  of  madia. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Niger  cake  is  utilized  as  a  cattle  food.  The  characteristic  elements 
are  the  rail-shaped  cells  of  the  hypoderm  (Fig.  161,  hy)  with  their  dark 
contents,  and  the  outer  layer  of  the  spermoderm  (S).  These  are 
rendered  distinct  by  treatment  with  alkali. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  Bibliography  of  Madia,  p.  200. 


202  OIL  SEEDS. 

MISCELLANEOUS  OIL   SEEDS. 

A  number  of  oil  seeds  and  fruits  belonging  to  widely  separated  fam- 
ilies are  of  even  greater  importance  for  oil  production  than  cruciferous 
seeds.  Of  those  here  described,  linseed,  cottonseed,  castor  bean,  sesame 
seed  and  poppy  seed  are  true  seeds,  while  hemp  seed  is  a  dry  fruit,  and 
the  olive  is  a  fleshy  fruit. 

LINSEED. 

The  flax  plant  (Linum  usitatissimum  L.  order  Linaceos)  is  valuable 
not  only  for  its  fibers,  but  for  its  seed,  which  yields  one  of  the  most  use- 
ful of  the  vegetable  oils,  also  a  concentrated  cattle  food.  Since  the  fiber 
is  in  its  best  condition  before  the  seeds  reach  maturity,  it  is  not  practicable 
to  secure  a  yield  of  both  fiber  and  seed  from  the  same  crop. 

Flax  is  grown  for  seed  throughout  the  temperate  zone,  particularly  in 
India,  Russia,  Egypt,  and  the  United  States. 

The  anatropous  seed  is  flattened,  obovate  with  a>  slightly  beaked 
base,  and  varies  from  4-6  mm.  in  length.  To  the  naked  eye  the  surface 
is  smooth  and  lustrous,  but  under  a  lens  appears  slightly  roughened. 
The  Indian  seed  is  yellow,  the  ordinary  varieties  brown.  The  straight 
embryo  consists  of  two  long,  thick  cotyledons  and  a  short  radicle,  the 
cotyledons  being  several  times  as  thick  as  the  inclosing  endosperm  (Fig. 
162). 

HISTOLOGY. 

Sections  may  be  cut  dry  after  embedding  the  seed  in  paraffine.  They 
are  first  treated  with  ether  and  alcohol  and 'afterwards  mouuted  in  glyc- 
erine, thus  preserving  the  mucilaginous  contents  of  the  epicarp  cells, 
and  the  aleurone  grains  of  the  endosperm  and  cotyledons. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  163,  5;  Fig.  164).  i.  The  Epidermis  (ep)  con: 
sists  of  polygonal  cells  covered  by  a  colorless  finely  granular  cuticle.  If 
sections  are  first  mounted  in  alcohol,  and  water  is  gradually  drawn  in 
from  one  edge,  the  thick  outer  wall  is  seen  to  have  stratified  inner  layers 
of  a  mucilaginous  material  which  nearly  fills  the  cell  cavity.  It  is  this 
mucilaginous  substance  which  gives  the  seed  its  value  in  medicine. 

2.  Round  Cells  (p).  One  or  two  layers  of  yellow  cells  with  circular 
cavities  and  marked  intercellular  spaces  form  the  second  layer.  Their 
appearance  in  surface  view  is  characteristic. 


UNSEED. 


203 


3.  Fiber  Layer  (/).     Strongly  thickened,  porous  fibers  longitudinally 
arranged  make  up  this  layer.     They  vary  up  to  250  /*  in  length  and  10  j« 


ep 


FIG.  162.  Linseed  (Linum  usi- 
tatissimum).  Cross  section 
showing  5  spermoderm,  E 
endosperm  and  Em  embryo. 
X35-  (MOELLER.) 


FiG.  163.  Linseed.  Cross  section  of  5  spermoderm 
and  E  endosperm,  ep  outer  epidermis;  p  round 
cells;  /  fiber  layers;  tr  cross  cells;  g  pigment  cells. 

(MOELLER.) 


-tr 


FIG.   164.     Linseed.     Elements   in   surface  view,     c  cuticle  with  *  fissures;   ep  epidermis; 
p  round  cells;  /  fiber  layer;  tr  cross  cells;  g  pigment  cells;  C  cotyledon  tissue.      X  160. 

(MOELLER.) 

in  breadth.     As  may  be   seen   in   cross  section,   their  radial  diameters 
are  much  greater  than  their  breadth. 


204  OIL  SEEDS. 

4.  Cross  Cells  (tr).     Several  layers  of  exceedingly  thin- walled,  more 
or  less  obliterated,  colorless  cells  cross  the  fibers  of  the  preceding  layer 
at  right  angles. 

Layers  i  to  4  inclusive  usually  separate  from  the  seed  together,  pre- 
senting in  surface  view  a  highly  characteristic  appearance. 

5.  Pigment  Layer    (g).     Equally    characteristic    are    the    square    or 
polygonal  cells  of  this  layer,  with  thick,  porous  walls  and  yellow  or  brown 
contents.     This  material  is  insoluble  in  alcohol  or  ether,  but  is  colored 
dark  blue  by  ferric  chloride.     It  separates  from  the  cells  in  the  form 
of  rectangular  plates,  which,  owing  ,to  their  color,  are  readily  identified. 

The  Endosperm  (Fig.  163,  E)  is  usually  from  2  to  6  cell  layers  thick, 
being  thinnest  at  the  edges.  The  cells  have  thicker  walls  than  those  of 
the  embryo  and  contain  fat  'and  distorted  aleurone  grains,  each  grain 
with  a  globoid  in  a  sort  of  beak  and  an  indistinct  crystalloid  in  the  body. 

Embryo  (Fig.  164,  C).  The  cells  contain  large,  ovoid  aleurone 
grains  up  to  20  /*  long,  like  those  of  the  endosperm,  also  minute  grains. 

Tschirch  and  Oesterle  recommend  mounting  in  alcohol  and  running 
a  water  solution  of  iodine  under  the  cover,  thus  staining  the  crystalloid 
yellow. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Ground  Linseed  is  used  chiefly  as  a  drug,  but  linseed  cake  from  the 
oil  presses  and  the  ground  cake,  known  as  linseed  meal,  are  highly  es- 
teemed by  cattle  feeders. 

The  conspicuous  elements  are  pieces  of  the  yellow  outer  spermoderm, 
consisting  of  round  cells  (Fig.  164,  p),  fibers  (/),  and  cross  cells  (tr), 
and  also  the  nearly  square,  faintly  beaded  pigment  cells  (g)  with  brown 
contents.  These  tissues  are  highly  characteristic  and  permit  the  detec- 
tion of  small  amounts  of  linseed  products  in  mixtures.  Starch  should 
not  be  present  in  considerable  amount. 

Linseed  Cake  and  the  ground  cake  known  as  Linseed  Meal  are  often 
contaminated  with  cruciferous  and  other  seeds  and  sometimes  adulter- 
ated with  cheaper  products. 

The  meal  is  itself  used  as  an  adulterant  for  black  pepper  and  other 
spices,  and  as  an  ingredient  of  many  condimental  cattle  foods. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Benecke  (2);  Berg  (3);  Bohmer  (6,  10,  23); 
Collin  (8);  Fluckiger  (n);  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (10,  16,  17,  48);  Harz  (18);  Mace  (26); 
Meyer,  A.  (28);  Moeller  (29,  30,  31,  32);  Schimper  (37);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40); 
Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (43,  45). 


COTTON  SEED. 


205 


BERGHE:  Tourteaux  et  Farines  de  Lin.     Bruxelles,  1891. 

CRAMER  :  Ueber  das  Vorkommen  und  die  Entstehung  einiger  Pflanzenschleime.     Pflan- 

zenphysiologische  Untersuchungen  von  C.  Nagali  u.  C.  Cramer,  Zurich,  1855. 
GODFRIN:  Etude  histologique  sur  les  tegument  seminaux  des  Angiospermes.      Soc. 

d.  Sci.  d.  Nancy,  1880,  109. 
HASELHOFF  u.  VAN  PESCH.     Ueber  Leinsamenkuchen  und  Mehl.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat. 

1892,  41,  55 

KOBUS:  Kraftfutter  und  seiner  Verfalschung.     Landw.  Jahrb.     1884,  13,  813.. 
KORAN:  Der  Austritt  des  Schleimes  aus  dem  Leinsamen.     Pharm.  Post,  1899,  32. 
SEMPOLOWSKI  :  Ueber  den  Bau  der  Schale  landwirthschaftlich  wichtiger  Samen.    Landw. 

Jahrb.  1874,  3,  823. 

COTTON   SEED. 

The  varieties  of  upland  or  short-staple  cotton  commonly  cultivated 
for  fiber  are  classed  under  Gossypium  herbaceum  L.   (order  Malvacece), 


NE 


I  II 

FIG.   165.     Cotton    Seed    (Gossypium   herbaceum).     I  transverse   section.     II   longitudinal 
section.     S  spermoderm;    NE  perisperm  and  endosperm;    C  cotyledons;    R  radicle. 

X4-       (WlNTON.) 

although  quite  probably  some  of  these  varieties  have  been  obtained  by 
crossing  with  other  species.  Other  species  of  economic  importance  are  Sea 
Island  or  long-staple  cotton  (G.  barbadense  L.),  and  tree  cotton  (G.  ar- 
boreum  L.). 

The  culture  of  cotton  has  extended  from  India,  its  native  country, 
to  northern  Africa,  the  southern  states  of  the  United  States,  Brazil,  and 
other  warm  regions. 

Within  the  bolls  are  borne  numerous  seeds  in  a  mass  of  fibers,  the 


206  OIL  SEEDS. 

latter  being  but  epidermal  cells  of ,  the  sperm oderm  prolonged  as  hairs 
(Fig.  165).  After  ginning,  the. seeds  of  upland  cotton  are  still  enveloped 
by  a  close  ground  fiber,  often  gray  or  green  in  color,  which  cannot  be 
easily  removed.  Sea  Island  cotton  seed  is  nearly  free  from  ground  fiber. 
Freed  from  the  fiber,  the  pointed,  egg-shaped,  black  or  dark-brown  seed 
is  6-12  mm.  long.  The  chalaza  is  a  little  to  one  side  of  the  broad  upper 
end,  the  hilum  and  micropyle  at  the  pointed  lower  end,  the  raphe  con- 
necting them  being  evident  as  a  ridge  on  the  surface.  A  shell-like  spermo- 
derm  and  a  thin  skin  consisting  of  perisperm  and  endosperm  inclose  the 
bulky  embryo,  the  latter  having  cotyledons  which  in  cross  section  are 
dotted  with  minute  dark-brown  resin  cavities. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  Spermoderm  (Fig.  166,  5;  Fig.  167)  is  300  /*  thick,  separating 
readily  from  the  seed.  The  inner  surface  is  brown  with  a  whitish  opales- 
cence. 

1.  Epidermis  (ep).     Over  the  raphe  the  epidermis  is  30-40 //  thick, 
but  in  other  parts  it  seldom  exceeds  25  /*.     The  cells  are  conspicuous 
because  of  the  thick  (5-12  //),  stratified,  yellow  walls  and  the  dark-brown 
contents.     In  surface  view,  the  cells  are  irregular  in  shape  and  vary  in 
size  from  less  than  10  to  over  60  /*.     About  the  hairs  they  form  rosettes. 
The  hairs  of  cotton  are  twisted,  thus  distinguishing  them  from  all  other 
textile    fibers.     Stomata  with    thin,    colorless-walled    guard,  cells    occur 
either  singly  or  in  pairs. 

2.  Outer  Brown  Coat  (br).     The  hypodermal  coat  consists  of   thin- 
walled,  often  compressed  cells,  with  indistinct  contour  and  brown  contents. 
Over  most  of  the  surface,  this  coat  is  but  20-40  /*  thick,  and  consists  of 
only  two  or  three  cell  layers,  but  about  the  raphe  it  is  several  times 
thicker. 

3.  Colorless  Cells  (w).     The  next  layer  consists  of  small  (10-30  ;/), 
colorless  cells,  with  sharply  defined  walls  2-3  //  thick.     Cells  divided  by 
tangential  partitions  occur  not  infrequently.     Hanausek  states  that  these 
cells  contain  occasional  oxalate  crystals  or  granular  masses;    most  of 

.  them,  however,  are  empty. 

4.  Palisade    Cells    (pal).      Over    one-half    of    the    thickness   of    the 
spermoderm    is  due   to   the    thickened   palisade    cells.     These   remark- 
able  and  exceedingly  characteristic    cells    are    8-20  /*  wide,  and    about 
150  ,u  long,  each  consisting  of  an  outer  portion   of  about   one-third  the 
length  of   the   cell  with  nearly  colorless  walls,   and    an    inner    portion 


COTTON  SEED. 


207 


with  yellowish- brown  walls.  The  lumen  in  the  outer  portion  of  each 
cell  is  narrow  except  for  a  globular  enlargement  at  the  inner  end,  4-6  ft 
in  diameter,  containing  a  dark-colored  material.  Seen  in  tangential  sec- 
tion, this  cavity  has  radiating  branches.  An  indistinct  light  line  adjoins 


ep 


aop — 


al 


icp 


FIG.  166.  Cotton  Seed.  Cross  section.  S  spermoderm  consists  of  ep  epidermis  with 
h  hair,  br  outer  brown  coat  with  R  raphe,  w  colorless  cells,  pal  palisade  cells,  and 
a,  b  and  c  layers  of  inner  brown  coat;  N  perisperm;  E  endosperm;  C  cotyledon  with 
aep  outer  epidermis  and  iep  inner  epidermis;  £  resin  cavity  surrounded  by  2  mucilage 
cells;  al  aleurone  grains;  k  crystal  cells;  g  procambium  bundles.  Xi6o.  (WiNTON.) 

the  outer  wall.  No  lumen  at  all  appears  in  the  inner  portion  of  these 
cells  in  cross  section,  but  in  tangential  section  faint  radiating  lines  are 
evident,  due,  according  to  von  Bretfeld,  to  lamella  arranged  about  the 
axis  of  the  cell.  Individual  cells  isolated  by  macerating  with  Schulze's 
solution  and  treated  with  chromic  acid  show  clearly  this  differentiation. 


208 


OIL  SEEDS. 


The  same  author  found  that  the  outer  portion  has  all  the  chemical  and 
optical  properties  of  pure  cellulose,  the  inner  portion,  those  of  lignified 
cellulose.  Cross  sections  viewed  with  polarized  light  exhibit  with  a  dark 
field  a  beautiful  play  of  color  in  the  outer,  a  clear  white  light  in  the  inner 
portion. 

5.  The  Inner  Brown  Coat.  In  the  outer  layer  of  this  coat  (a),  the 
cells  are  polygonal,  and  well  denned  both  in  cross  section  and  surface 
view.  Proceeding  inward,  the  tissue  takes  on  the  characters  of  a  typical 
spongy  parenchyma,  the  cells  in  the  innermost  layers  being  much  com- 


FIG.  167.  Cotton  Seed.  Surface  view  of  outer  layers,  ep  epidermis  of  spermoderm 
with  hl  hair  and  sto1  stoma;  br  outer  brown  cells;  w  colorless  cells;  pal1  and  pal"1  pali- 
sade cells  (see  Fig.  166);  a,  b,  c  layers  of  inner  brown  coat  of  spermoderm;  N  perisperm; 
E  endosperm;  aep  outer  epidermis  of  cotyledon  with  h2  multicellular  hair  and  sto2 
stoma.  Xi6o.  (WiNTON.) 

pressed  (b  and  c).  Brown  coloring  matter  like  that  in  the  second  layer 
of  the  spermoderm  is  usually  present  only  in  the  cells  of  the  outer  layers. 
Owing  to  the  absence  of  cell-contents  in  the  inner  obliterated  cells,  the 
inner  surface  of  the  spermoderm  is  more  or  less  opalescent. 

Perisperm.  (Figs.  166  and  167,  N)*  An  exceedingly  thin  skin  con- 
sisting of  a  single  cell  layer  of  perisperm  and  another  of  endosperm 
covers  the  embryo.  The  colorless  perisperm  cells  are  characterized  by 
the  fringe-like  walls  made  up  of  threads  perpendicular  to  the  surface. 
Hanausek's  name,  "fringe  cells,"  is  very  appropriate. 

Endosperm  (Figs.   166  and  167,  E).     A  single  layer  of  moderately 


COTTON  SEED.  209 

thick-walled  cells  containing  small  aleurone  grains  constitutes  the  endo- 
sperm. 

Embryo.  After  soaking  for  a  day  in  water,  the  complicated  folds 
of  the  cotyledons  (Fig.  x66,  C)  may  be  straightened  out  and  their  broad 
kidney  shape  noted. 

By  scraping  the  cotyledons  the  epidermis  (Figs.  166  and  167,  aep)  may 
be  removed  for  examination.  As  was  first  noted  by  Hanausek,  three 
kinds  of  cells  are  present:  first,  thin- walled  polygonal  cells;  second, 
pairs  of  cells  with  curved  walls,  the  guard  cells  of  incipient  stomata  (sto2); 
and  third,  small  cells  continued  beyond  the  surface  in  the  form  of  oval 
hairs  divided  into  several  cells  by  cross  partitions  (h2).  The  hairs  are 
most  abundant  at  the  point  of  insertion  on  the  axis. 

Sections  of  the  cotyledons  and  radicle  may  be  cut  dry  without  remov- 
ing the  spermoderm,  although  better  sections  are  obtained  after  remov- 
ing the  spermoderm  and  embedding  directly  in  paraffine. 

In  the  outer  portion  of  the  mesophyl,  the  cells  are  isodiametric, 
in  the  inner  layers,  of  typical  palisade  form.  Procambium  bundles  (g) 
run  longitudinally  or  obliquely  through  the  mesophyl. 

Crystal  clusters  (k)  occur  in  cells  scattered  here  and  there,  but  in 
most  of  the  mesophyl  cells  aleurone  grains  and  fat  are  the  only  visible 
contents.  The  aleurone  grains  (al)  are  2-5  ft  in  diameter  and  are  more 
or  less  angular  or  irregular  in  shape.  Alkali  dissolves  the  aleurone 
grains  and  other  contents  and  imparts  a  deep-yellow  color  to  the  tissues. 
The  so-called  resin  cavities  of  the  cotyledons  (s),  containing  a  dark- 
colored  secretion,  appear  to  the  naked  eye  as  brown  dots  in  the  nearly 
colorless  ground  tissue.  Around  these  cavities  two  or  more  indistinct 
rows  of  exceedingly  thin,  elongated  cells  (the  mucilage  cells  of  Hanausek) 
are  arranged  in  concentric  layers. 

We  are  indebted  to  Hanausek  for  the  following  observations:  Ex- 
amined in  water,  the  secretion  is  olive-green,  flowing  out  of  the  cavities 
in  the  form  of  a  yellow-green  emulsion,  the  particles  of  which  are  in 
lively  motion.  Strong  sulphuric  acid  dissolves  the  secretion  to  a  beau- 
tiful blood-red  solution.  Alkalies  color  it  green-brown,  but  do  not  dis- 
solve it. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Undecorticated  Cottonseed  Cake.  It  is  customary  in  India,  Egypt,  and 
m  most  cotton-growing  countries,  except  the  United  States,  to  express 
the  oil  without  previous  removal  of  the  hulls.  The  cake  obtained  as  a 
by-product  in  this  process,  although  containing  more  fiber  and  less  pro- 


210  OIL  SEEDS. 

tein  than  the  decorticated  cake,  is  preferred  by  the  English  feeders,  be- 
cause of  the  mechanical  action  of  the  hulls. 

Samples  should  be  mounted  in  water  and  examined  first  directly 
to  detect  possible  starchy  adulterants,  and  again  after  addition  of  alkali, 
noting  the  fragments  of  spermoderm  and  the  yellow  color  of  the  dis- 
organized lumps.  The  coats  of  the  spermoderm  are  best  studied  in 
fat-  and  protein-free  material  obtained  by  the  crude-fiber  process  or 
by  Hebebrand's  method  (p.  172). 

Especially  characteristic  are  the  thick- walled  epidermal  cells  (Figs.  166 
and  167,  ep)  with  hairs  and  the  palisade  cells  (pal),  although  the  other 
layers  aid  in  identification.  The  fringe  cells  (N)  of  the  perisperm  are  char- 
acteristic, but  not  so  conspicuous  as  are  the  layers  of  the  spermoderm. 

The  cake  or  meal  from  common  cotton  contains  more  fiber  (often 
attached  to  fragments  of  hull)  and  less  abundant  brown  pigment  in  both- 
the  outer  brown  layer  and  the  inner,  than  products  of  the  varieties  of 
G.  Barbadense  (Sea  Island  Cotton,  Egyptian  Cotton,  etc.).  Voelcker 
places  considerable  dependence  on  the  more  or  less  pronounced  opales- 
cent appearance  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  hulls  of  Bombay  seed  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  deep-brown  inner  surface  of  the  hulls  from  Egyptian 
seed,  a  distinction  which  also  holds  good  in  most  cases  between  upland 
and  Sea  Island  seed  as  grown  in  the  United  States.  This  observation, 
first  brought  to  notice  by  Richardson  of  Lincoln,  England,  depends  on 
the  degree  of  obliteration  of  the  innermost  cells  of  the  spermoderm. 

Decorticated  Cotton-seed  Cake.  In  the  United  States,  upland  cotton 
seed  is  hulled  before  expressing  the  oil,  the  cake  and  the  rich  yellow  meal 
obtained  by  grinding  the  cake  consisting  of  material  from  the  cotyledon 
with  only  a  small  amount  of  spermoderm.  This  meal  is  often  grossly 
adulterated  with  ground  cotton  hulls,  and  occasionally  with  rice  refuse. 
Finely  ground  hulls,  owing  partly  to  the  fine  state  of  division  of  the  dark- 
colored  matter,  and  partly  to  the  exposure  of  the  nearly  colorless  palisade 
cells,  is  not  so  dark  as  the  coarsely  ground  hulls  and  more  readily  escapes 
detection  in  the  meal. 

Determinations  of  nitrogen  and  fiber,  coupled  with  microscopic  ex- 
amination of  the  original  material  and  of  the  crude  fiber,  serve  for  the  de- 
tection of  this  form  of  adulteration. 

Cotton  Hulls  formerly  were  burned  as  a  fuel  under  the  boilers  of 
the  oil  mills,  and  the  ash,  rich  in  potash,  utilized  as  a  tobacco  fertilizer. 
They  are  now  used  for  feeding  cattle  or  as  an  adulterant  of  cotton-seed 
meal,  as  noted  above. 


KAPOK  SEED.  211 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Benecke  (2);  Bohmer  (6, 10,  23);  Collin  (8); 
Hanausek,  T.  F.  (17,  48). 
v.  BRETFELD:    Anatomic  des  Batfmwolle-  und  Kapoksames.     Jour.  f.  Landw.   1887, 

35,  29. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Zur  mikroskopischen  Charakteristik  der  Baumwollsamen-Producte. 

Ztsch.  allg.  osterr.  Apoth.-Ver.  1888,  26,  569,  591. 

KOBUS:  Kraftfutter  und  seiner  Verfalschung,     Landw.  Jahrb.  1884,  13,  813. 
VOELCKER:  Methods  of  Discriminating  between  Egyptian  and  Bombay  Cotton  Seed 

Cakes.     Analyst.  1903,  28,  261. 
WINTON:  The  Microscopic  Examination  of  American   Cotton   Seed  Cake.     Analyst, 

1904,  29,  44.     The  Anatomy  of  Certain  Oil  Seeds  with  Especial  Reference  to  the 

Microscopic  Examination  of  Cattle  Foods.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1903,  175. 


KAPOK   SEED. 

Several  tropical  trees  belonging  to  the  order  Bombacecz  have  capsules 
filled  with  a  dense  mat  of  woolly  hairs  which  spring  from  the  endocarp, 
not  as  in  the  case  of  the  cotton,  a  member  of  a  closely  related  family, 
from  the  spermoderm.  These  hairs  are  too  brittle  to  be  of  value  as 
textile  fibers,  but  are  used  for  upholstery.  Of  these  "silk-cotton  trees" 
the  kapok  (Ceibo  pentandra  (L.)  Gartn.,  Eriodendron  anjractuosum  DC.), 
growing  in  the  East  and  West  Indies  and  other  tropical  regions,  is  of 
importance,  not  only  for  the  fibers  but  also  for  the  oily  seeds,  which  re- 
semble cotton  seeds  in  structure.  In  the  Celebes  the  seeds  are  eaten  by 
the  natives,  and  in  various  countries  are  used  for  making  oil.  Two 
German  authors,  Reinders  and  Kobus,  state  that  the  cake  is  an  adulter- 
ant of  linseed  cake. 

The  campylotropous  seed  is  about  the  size  of  a  pea  and  has  a  swollen 
funiculus  which  covers  the  chalaza.  The  cotyledons  are  folded  simi- 
larly to  those  of  the  cottonseed,  but  do  not  have  resin  cavities. 

|  HISTOLOGY.  - 

The  following  comparison  of  the  structure  of  cotton  and  kapok  seeds 
is  given  by  v.  Bretfeld: 

COTTON  SEED.  KAPOK  SEED. 

Spermoderm. 

1.  Epidermis;  sclerenchymatized  with  thin-walled  with  gland-like 

hairs;  cavities. 

2.  Outer  Brown  Coat:          with  fibro-vascular  bundles;     without  nbro-vascular  bun- 

dles. 


212  OIL  SEEDS. 

COTTON  SEED.  KAPOK  SEED. 

Spermoderm : 

3.  Colorless  Cells:  1-2  cell  layers;  3-4  cell  layers  with  crystal 

clusters. 

4.  Palisade  Cells:  $  longer;  i  shorter. 

5.  Inner  Erown  Coat:          more  star  cells;  fewer  star  cells. 
Perisperm:                             cells   smaller,   walls  more      cells  larger,  walls  less  knotty. 

knotty; 

Cotyledons:  green  tissue  with  resin  colorless  tissue  without  resin 

cavities;  cavities. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

BRETFELD:  Anatomic  des  Baumwolle-  und  Kapoksamens.     Jour.  Landw.  1887,  35,  29. 
KOBUS:  Kraftfutter  und  seiner  Verfalschung.     Landw.  Jahrb.  1884,  3,  813. 
VAN  PESCH:  Kapok-Kuchen.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1896,  47,  471. 

HEflP-SEED. 

Hemp  (Cannabis  saliva  L.  order  Cannabinece)  is  grown  as  a  fiber 
plant  throughout  Europe,  especially  in  Russia,  also  in  Africa,  India, 
China,  Brazil,  the  United  States  -and  other  regions. 

When  the  production  of  fiber  alone  is  considered,  the  plant  is  cut 
shortly  after  blooming;  but  in  Russia  it  is  allowed  to  grow  until  the  fruit 
reaches  maturity,  thus  securing  a  yield  of  seed  as  well  as  fiber.  Indian 
hemp  (Cannabis  saliva  var.  Indica)  is  grown  exclusively  as  a  medicinal  herb. 

The  dioecious  plant  yields  an  oval,  somewhat  flattened,  two-ribbed 
fruit,  consisting  of  a  brown  pericarp  delicately  marked  with  white  veins 
(Fig.  1 68,  //  and  ///,  F),  a  sperm oderm  (S)  of  a  green  color,  a  thin  endo- 
sperm, and  a  bulky  embryo  with  thick  cotyledons  (C)  and  a  radicle  (R) 
bent  parallel  to  the  cotyledons.  The  "seeds"  on  the  market  consist, 
for  the  most  part,  of  naked  fruit,  with  an  occasional  fruit  inclosed  within 
the  hooded  calyx  (Fig.  168,  /). 

HISTOLOGY. 

Calyx  (Fig.  169).  i.  Outer  Epidermis  (aep).  From  among  the 
polygonal  cells  of  the  epidermis  arise  two  very  characteristic  and  striking 
elements:  first,  the  glands,  either  sessile  or  stalked  (d);  and  second, 
the  cystolith  hairs  (h).  The  glands  are  globular  with  eight  or  more 
cells  on  the  under  side  radiating,  usually,  from  two  central  cells,  the 
secretion  cavity  being  formed  by  the  separation  of  the  outer  cuticle 
from  these  cells.  These  glands  are  usually  borne  on  many-celled  stalks, 
often  300  /*  long.  The  cystolith  hairs  are  characterized  by  their  irregu- 


HEMP-SEED. 


213 


larly  globular  bases,  often  75  /*  in  diameter,  in  which  is  suspended  a 
cystolith  of  calcium  carbonate  (cy).    They  taper  either  abruptly  or  gradu- 


III 


FlG.  1 68.  Hemp  (Cannabis  saliva).  I  calyx.  II  outer  surface  of  fruit.  Ill  longitudinal 
section  of  fruit.  F  pericarp;  5  spermoderm;  E  endosperm;  C  cotyledon;  R  radicle. 
X4-  (WiNTON.) 

ally  from  this  base  to  the  pointed  apex,  in  the  latter  case  often  reaching 
a  length  of  500  /*  and  sometimes  i  mm.  The  walls,  although  but  one- 
half  to  one-sixth  as  thick  as  the  lumen,  are  often  8  /z  thick. 

2.  Mesophyl   (mes).     Several   layers   of   small   cells,    through   which 
run  numerous  bundles,  make  up  the  mesophyl.     In  the  inner  layer  the 


iep 


aop 


FlG.  169.  Hemp-.  Calyx  in  surface  view,  aep  outer  epidermis  with  h  hair  containing 
cy  cystolith,  and  d  glandular  hair;  mes  mesophyl  containing  crystals;  iep  inner  epi- 
dermis. Xi6o.  (WINTON.) 

cells  are  about  10  fi  in  diameter  and  contain  crystal  clusters  of  calcium 
oxalate. 


214 


OIL  SEEDS. 


3.  The  Inner  Epidermis  (iep}.  Cells  with  wavy  outline,  thin- walled 
hairs,  and  stomata  form  the  inner  layer. 

Pericarp  (Figs.  170  and  171).  i.  Epicarp  (ep}.  This  layer  consists 
of  more  or  less  sclerenchymatized  cells  with  wavy  outline.  The  radial 
walls  are,  in  some  parts,  moderately  thickened,  in  others  so  thick  that 
there  is  but  a  narrow  lumen.  All  the  walls  are  porous. 

2.  Spongy  Parenchyma  (hy).  One  or  more  layers  of  colorless  cells, 
usually  with  numerous  circular  intercellular  spaces,  form  a  hypodermal 


iep t 


FIG.  170.  Hemp  Seed.  Cross  section  of  fruit.  F  pericarp  consists  of  ep  epicarp,  hy 
hypoderm,  br  brown  cells,  w  dwarf  cells,  and  pal  palisade  cells;  5  spermoderm  consists 
of  sch  tube  cells  and  s  spongy  parenchyma;  N  perisperm;  E  endosperm;  C  cotyledon 
with  aep  outer  epidermis,  and  iep  inner  epidermis;  al  aleurone  grains.  Xi6o. 

(WlNTON.) 

coat.  Through  this  layer  run  the  numerous  anastomosing  bundles, 
which,  seen  through  the  epicarp,  are  evident  to  the  naked  eye  as  veins. 
This  layer  is  thickest  in  the  two  keels  of  the  fruit. 

3.  Brown  Cells  (br).  Owing  to  their  greater  thickness  and  the  presence 
of  brown  contents,  these  cells  are  more  readily  distinguished  in  cross 
section  than  those  of  the  preceding  layer.  In  preparations  obtained  by 
heating  the  fruit  in  alkali  and  scraping,  they  are  conspicuous.  Focusing 
on  the  outer  wall,  the  radial  walls  are  straight  or  moderately  sinuous; 
but  further  inward  they  are  zigzag  with  projections — often  branching — 
extending  into  the  cell  cavity  and  forming  in  each  cell  what  appear  to  be 
several  indistinct  compartments.  The  cell-contents,  after  this  treatment, 
form  irregular  lumps  shrunken  away  from  the  walls. 


HEMP-SEED. 


4.  Dwarf  Cells  (w).     Owing  to  its  thinness,  this  layer  can  be  seen  in 
cross  section  only  in  carefully  cut  specimens;    but  in  tangential  sections 


ep 


FlG.   171.     Hemp.     Pericarp  in  surface  view  seen  from  without,     ep  epicarp;   hy  hypoderm 
with  sp  spiral  vessels;  br  brown  cells;  w  colorless  cells;  pal1  palisade  cells  (see  Fig.  170). 

Xl6o.       (WlNTON.) 

or  preparations  obtained  by  the  treatment  above  described,  the  minute, 
colorless,  porous  cells  (seldom  over  12  /*)  with  wavy,  radial  walls  are 
readily  distinguished. 

5.  Palisade  Layer   (pal).     This  layer,   owing  to  its  thickness   (often 
100  /*),  the  peculiarly  thickened  porous  walls,  and  the  wavy  outlines  of 


par 


FIG.  172.  Hemp.  Palisade  cells,  spermoderm,  perisperm,  and  endosperm  seen  from 
within,  pal2  palisade  cells  (see  Fig.  170);  sch  tube  cells  and  S  spongy  parenchyma 
of  spermoderm;  N  perisperm;  E  endosperm.  Xi6o.  (WINTON.) 

the  radial  walls  as  seen  both  in  cross  and  tangential  sections,  is  the  most 
conspicuous  and  characteristic  of  all  the  layers  of  the  fruit.  So  strongly 
sclerenchymatized  are  the  outer  and,  except  at  the  inner  end,  the  radial 
walls,  that  the  lumen  is  reduced  to  a  narrow  line  for  fully  two-thirds  of 


216  OIL  SEEDS. 

the  outer  portion  of  the  cell  (pal *);  at  the  inner  wall,  however,  the  radial 
walls  abruptly  narrow,  leaving  a  wide  lumen  (Fig.  172,  pal2).  The 
inner  wall  is  porous  and  moderately  thickened. 

Spermoderm  (Figs.  170  and  172,  5).  The  cells  contain  green  granules, 
which  are  insoluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  alkali. 

1.  Tube  Cells  (sch).     The  outer  layer  is  quite  distinct  from  the  inner 
layer,  owing  to  the  elongated  form  of  the  cells  and  the  elongated  rows  of 
intercellular  spaces. 

2.  Inner  Layer    (s).     Further   inward    the   cells  form    an   indistinct 
spongy  parenchyma  with  star-shaped  or  irregular  cell  outlines. 

Perisperm  (Figs.  170  and  172,  N).  If  the  fruit  is  soaked  for  a  day 
or  two  in  ij  per  cent  soda  solution,  the  perisperm  with  adhering  endosperm 
readily  separates  from  the  spermoderm  on  the  one  hand  and  the  embryo 
on  the  other.  In  cross  section  it  is  indistinctly  seen. 

The  Endosperm  (Figs.  170  and  172,  E)  forms  a  coat,  mostly  one  cell- 
layer  thick,  about  the  whole  embryo,  and  also  extends  in  the  form  of  a 
partition  several  layers  thick  between  the  cotyledons  and  the  radicle. 
These  cells,  containing  small  protein  grains,  resemble  the  aleurone  cells 
of  the  cereals. 

Embryo  (Fig.  170,  C).  Both  epidermal  layers  of  the  cotyledons  are 
composed  of  small  cells  with  aleurone  grains  2-3  /*  in  diameter.  Beneath 
the  outer  epidermis  are  several  layers  of  isodiametric  cells,  while  adjoin- 
ing the  inner  epidermis  are  two  layers  of  typical  palisade  cells.  Both 
forms  of  cells  contain,  in  addition  to  fat,  aleurone  grains  up  to  8  //. 
Each  grain  consists  of  an  irregularly-spherical  or  elliptical  body  con- 
taining a  crystalloid  with  a  globoid  excrescence. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  seeds  serve  primarily  for  the  production  of  oil;  but  the  cake  from 
the  oil  presses  is  utilized  in  various  parts  of  Europe  as  a  cattle  food,  a  fer- 
tilizer, and  possibly  as  an  adulterant. 

The  characteristic  elements  are  the  epicarp  (Fig.  17^1,  ep),  the  spongy 
parenchyma  (hy)  with  anastomosing  bundles,  the  dwarf  cells  (w),  the 
palisade  cells  (pal),  and  the  tube  cells  (Fig,  172,  sch)  of  the  sper- 
moderm with  green  contents  insoluble  in  alcohol,  ether  and  alkali. 

Extraction  with  ether,  and  treatment  by  Hebebrand's  method  (p.  172) 
may  be  used  to  prepare  material  for  examination.  If  sufficiently  large 
fragments  of  the  shell  are  obtainable,  the  palisade  cells  are  best  identified 


SESAME  SEED. 


217 


in  cross  section,  and  the  dwarf  cells  in  tangential  section.     The  aleurone 
grains,  if  still  intact,  may  be  seen  in  turpentine  mounts. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Benecke  (2);  Bohmer  (6,  10,  23);  Collin  (8); 
Hanausek.  T.  F.  (17);    Harz  (18);    Tschirch  (39);    Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40). 
MACCHIATI:  Sessualita,   anatomia   del  frutto  e  germinatione  del  seme  della  canapa. 

Bull.  d.  Statione  agraria  di  Modena,  1889,  Nov.  Ser.  9. 
TSCHIRCH:  Ueber  den  anatomischen  Bau  und  die  Entwickelungsgeschichte  der  Secret- 

driisen    des     Hanfes.     Naturforscherversammlung,    1886.     Ber.   in   Pharm.   Ztg, 

1886,  31,  577- 
WINTON:  Anatomic  des  Hanfsamens.     Ztschr,  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm.  1904,  7,  385. 

The  Anatomy  of  Certain  Oil  Seeds  with   Especial  Reference  to  the  Microscopic 

Examination  of  Cattle  Foods.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1903,  175. 


C    R    S 


SESAflE   SEED. 

Common  sesame  (Sesamum  Indicum  L.,  order  Gesneracecz)  is  one  of 
the  most  valuable  cultivated  plants  in  India,  China,  Asia  Minor,  Palestine, 
Arabia,  and  other  parts  of  the  Orient,  the 
seeds  serving  for  the  production  of  oil 
and  cake,  also  for  direct  consumption  as 
human  food.  The  plant  is  also  to  some 
extent  cultivated  in  Egypt,  parts  of  East 
Africa,  and  in  the  warmer  parts  of  North 
and  South  America. 

The  flattened  pear-shaped  seeds  (Fig. 
173)  are  2-3  mm.  long  and  vary  in  color 
from  white  to  brown.  Passing  longitu- 
dinally through  the  center  of  one  of  the 
flattened  sides,  is  the  raphe  (-R),  and  run- 
ning around  the  edge  of  each  of  the  flattened  surfaces  is  an  indistinct  ridge 
conforming  to  the  shape  of  the  seed  (/).  The  endosperm  (E)  is  about 
half  as  thick  as  the  cotyledon  (C). 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  174,  5;  Fig.  175).  i.  Epidermis  (ep).  The  cells 
throughout  are  radially  elongated  with  convex  outer  walls.  Owing  to 
the  thinness  of  the  radial  walls,  they  are  usually  collapsed,  but  assume 
their  normal  form  on  heating  cross  sections  with  dilute  alkali.  The  cells 
forming  the  ridges  are  empty  and,  as  was  first  noted  by  Benecke,  are 


II 


FIG.  173.  Sesame  Seed  (Sesamum 
Indicum).  I  outer  surface  of  seed. 
IT  transverse  section.  S  sperm  o- 
derm  with  /  ridges  and  R  raphe; 
E  endosperm;  C  cotyledon.  X8. 

(WlNTON  ) 


218 


OIL  SEEDS. 


arranged  like  the  vanes  of  a  feather.     In  other  parts  the  cells  are  parallel 
and  each  contains  in  the  extreme  outer  end,  adjoining  the  thin  outer  wall, 


E       S 

FIG.  174.  Sesame.  Cross  section  of  seed.  6*  spermoderm  consists  of  ep  epidermal  cells 
with  Ca  crystal  masses,  /  epidermal  cells  of  ridges,  p  parenchyma  and  m  yellow  mem- 
brane; E  endosperm;  C  cotyledon  containing  al  aleurone  grains.  Xi6o.  (WiNTON.) 

an  irregularly  spherical  mass  consisting  of  calcium  oxalate  crystals  (Ca), 
apparently  within  a  thin  membrane.  These  masses  are  12-40  /*  in  diam- 
eter. In  surface  view,  as  may  be  clearly  seen  by  examination  of  the  skin 
which  separates  after  boiling  the  seed  in  water,  the  crystal  cells  are  iso- 
diametric -polygonal  (ep),  the  cells  of  the  ridges  slightly  elongated  (/). 


FIG.   175.     Sesame.     Spermoderm  and  endosperm  in  surface  view,     ep  epidermis  with  Ca 
crystal  masses;    I  epidermal  cells  of  ridges;    E  endosperm.      Xi6o.     (WiNTON.) 

By  boiling  with  alkali  on  the  slide,  some  of  the  epidermal  cells  may  be 
isolated  and,  after  staining  with  chlorzinc  iodine,  viewed  in  a  horizontal 


SESAME  SEED.  219 

position.     Sometimes  the  crystal  masses  are  disintegrated,  the  separate 
crystals  presenting  the  appearance  shown  in  Fig.  175. 

2.  Parenchyma  (Nutritive  Layer)  (p).     One,  sometimes  more,  layers 
of  collapsed  cells,  form  what  in  the  earlier  stages  of  growth  was  a  nutritive 
layer.     Only  after  heating  with    alkali  is  the  cellular  structure  at  all 
evident  in  cross  section  and  then  but  indistinctly.     After  removing  the 
epidermis  as  above  described  and  treating  the  seed  with  safranin  or  chlor- 
zinc  iodine,  colored  fragments  may  be  removed  from  the  surface  of  the 
seed,   which   often   show  longitudinally  elongated   cells.     Hanausek  has 
noted  that  the  cells  contain  loose  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 

3.  Yellow  Membrane  (Fig.  174,  m).     Lining  the  inner  surface  of  the 
spermoderm  is  a  membrane,  probably  the  cuticle  of  an  obliterated  inner 
epidermis. 

Endosperm  (Figs.  174  and  175,  E).  The  outer  wall  of  the  endosperm 
is  strongly  thickened.  At  the  ends  of  the  elliptical  cross  sections  there 
are  but  two  cell  layers,  but  on  the  sides  there  are  three  to  five  layers. 
The  cells  contain  aleurone  grains  (2-6  /*),  and  fat. 

Embryo  (Fig.  174,  C).  The  cells  of  the  cotyledons,  except  in  the 
single  layer  of  palisade  cells,  are  isodiametric  and  like  those  of  the  endo- 
sperm, contain  aleurone  grains  (up  to  10  /*)  and  fat,  but  no  starch.  Hanau- 
sek states  that  each  grain  contains  either  a  crystalloid  or,  at  one  of  the 
poles,  a  globoid. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Not  only  is  sesame  oil  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  vegetable  oils, 
but  the  seed  itself  is  an  ingredient  of  various  articles  of  diet  throughout 
the  warmer  countries  of  the  East,  and  the  cake  obtained  as  a  by-product 
in  the  manufacture  of  the  oil  serves  as  food  for  both  man  and  beast. 
Sesame  cake  has  been  imported  into  Europe  in  large  amount,  where  it 
is  highly  esteemed  by  cattle  feeders. 

Samples  of  sesame  cake  may  be  prepared  for  examination  by  Benecke's 
or  Hebebrand's  method  or  by  simply  boiling  with  ij  per  cent  alkali. 
Previous  extraction  with  ether  is  desirable. 

Characteristic  of  common  sesame  are  radially  elongated,  thin-walled 
epidermal  cells  (Fig.  175,  ep),  each  with  a  crystal  mass  (Co)  in  the  outer 
end.  In  black  sesame  (S.  radiatum  S.  et  T.)  the  masses  are  in  the  inner 
end  of  the  cell,  where  the  cell-wall  is  strongly  thickened. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Benecke  (2);  Bohmer  (6,  10,  23);  Collin  (8): 
Hanausek,  T.  F.  (17,  48);  Harz  (18). 


220 


OIL  SEEDS. 


BENECKE:  Die  verschiedenen   Sesamarten   und  Sesamkuchen  des  Handels.     Pharm. 

Centralh.  1887,  545. 

HEBEBRAND:  Ueber  den  Sesam.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1898,  51,  45. 
KOBUS:  Kraftfutter  und  seiner  Verfalschung.     Landw.  Jahrb.  1884,  13,  813. 
WINTON:  The  Anatomy  of  Certain  Oil  Seeds  with  Especial  Reference  to  the  Micro- 

scopic Examination  of  Cattle  Foods.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1903,  175. 


CASTOR   BEAN. 

The  castor-bean  plant  (Ricinus  communis  L.,  order  Euphorbiacece)  is 
grown  for  its  oily  seeds,  from  which  is  obtained  the  castor-oil  of  commerce. 
Castor  pomace,  although  not  suited  for  use'  as  a  cattle  food  because  of 
the  highly  poisonous  ingredient  "ricine,"  is  a  valuable  fertilizer.  As  this 
material  has  repeatedly  been  consumed  by  animals  with  fatal  results, 
its  microscopic  detection  is  sometimes  desirable. 

The  seeds  are  obovoid,  slightly  flattened,  with  markings  like  those  of 
a  tortoise  shell.  On  one  of  the  flattened  sides  the  raphe  is  clearly  evident, 
and  at  the  base  a  prominent  caruncle.  The 
spermoderm  is  hard  and  exceedingly  brittle;  the 
endosperm  is  bulky;  the  cotyledons  of  the  axial 
embryo  are  broad  but  thin. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  Spermoderm  (Fig.  176)  consists  of  five 
distinct  layers  of  which  four  are  readily  removed 
as  a  brittle  shell.  As  noted  by  Collin,  the  three 
outer  layers  may  be  separated  from  the  fourth  by 
boiling  with  dilute  alkali.  The  innermost  layer 
remains  attached  to  the  seed  after  shelling. 
FIG  176.  Castor  Bean  (Ri-  Th  Epidermis  (Fig.  176,  ep;  Fig.  177)  is 

emus  commums).    Cross  *  &         '    '       r  °         "/ 

section  of  outer  portion  characterized  by  the  sharply  polygonal,  finely  pitted 
1-  cells,  some  of  which  are  colorless,  others  of  a  brown 


chyma;     p    thin-walled  coior  hence  the  mottled  appearance  of  the  seed. 

palisade  cells;  P  scleren-  . 

chymatized  palisade  cells.        2.  Spongy  Parenchyma  (s)  forms  a  layer  several 
cells  thick.   ' 

3.  Thin-walled  Palisade  Cells  (p)  with  dark  contents  are  the  elements 
of  the  third  layer.     In  surface  view  the  cells  are  polygonal  or  rounded, 
12-20  fi.  in  diameter,  and  often  have  intercellular  spaces  at  the  angles. 

4.  Sclerenchymatized  Palisade  Cells  (P)  constitute  a  layer  200  JJL  thick. 
The  cell-walls  are  of  a  brown  color  and  show  distinct  pores.     At  the 


CASTOR  BEAN.  221 

outer  ends  the  cell  cavities  are  somewhat  broader  than  at  other  parts- 
Seen  in  surface  view,  the  cells  are  polygonal,  8-15  fi  in  diameter. 

5.  Inner  Layer.  After  removing  the  foregoing  layers,  the  seed,  on 
close  examination,  is  seen  to  be  enveloped  by  a  thin  white  skin — the  inner 
layer  of  the  spermoderm.  This  consists  of  a  colorless,  thin- walled,  more 
or  less  compressed  parenchyma,  several  cells  thick,  and  numerous  fibro 


FIG.  177.     Castor  Bean.     Cuter  FIG.  178.     Castor  Bean.     Aleurone  grains  of 

epidermis    in     surface     view.  endosperm.     A  in  oil;    B  in  iodine  solution. 

(MOELLER.)  (MOELLER.) 

vascular  bundles.     Crystal  clusters  and  radiating  groups  of  feather-like 
crystals  are  readily  found  in  surface  mounts. 

Endosperm  (Fig.  178).  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  reserve  material 
of  the  seed,  consisting  largely  of  aleurone  grains  and  fat,  is  in  the  endo- 
sperm. The  aleurone  grains  are  round,  ellipsoidal,  or  egg-shaped,  and 
frequently  reach  a  diameter  of  20  //.  Each  contains  a  large  crystalloid 
and  an  excentrically  located  globoid.  Rarely  two  or  more  globoids  are 
present. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Highly  characteristic  of  this  seed  are  the  sharply  polygonal,  pitted 
epidermal  cells  (Fig.  1 77)  of  the  spermoderm,  some  with,  others  without, 
brown  contents,  and  the  brown,  sclerenchymatized  palisade  cells  (Fig. 
176,  P).  The  other  layers  of  the  spermoderm  are  also  of  some  diag- 
nostic value.  Numerous  large  aleurone  grains  (Fig.  178),  each  with  a 
large  crystalloid  and  a  smaller  globoid,  are  seen  in  turpentine  or  glycerine 
mounts. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bohmer  (6,  10,  23);  Collin  (8);  Hanausek, 
T.  F.  (48);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Tichomirow  (38). 
COLLIN  :  Tourteau  de  ricin;    ses  dangers,  ses  caracteres  anatomiques.     Jour,  pharm. 

chim.  1903, 
GRAM:  Om   Frosskallens  Bygning  hos  Euphorbiaceerne.    On  the  structure  of  the 

spermoderm  of  euphorbiaceous  seeds.     Bot.  Tidskrift.   1896.  20,  358. 


222  OIL  SEEDS. 

GRIS:  Note  sur  le  developpement  de  la  graine  du  Ricin.    Ann.  Soc.  nat.  Bot.  1861,  15t 

5;  1862,  17,  312;  1864,  Ser.  V.  2,  5. 
KAYSER:  Beitrage  zur  Entwicklungsgeschichte  der  Samendecken  bei  den  Euphorbiaceen 

mit    besonderer  Beriicksichtigung  von  Ricinus  communis  L.   Ber.  Pharm.   Ges. 

1892,  2,  45- 
PAMMEL:  On  the  Seed  Coats  of  the   Genus  Euphorbia.      Contributions  from  Shaw 

School  of  Bot.  1891,  No.  8,  543. 
SCHLOTTERBECK  :    Beitrage  zur  Entwicklungsgeschichte   pharmakognostisch  wichtiger 

Samen.     Inaug.-Diss.  Bern,  1896. 


CANDLENUT. 

The  seeds  of  the  candlenut  tree  (Aleurites  triloba  Forst,  A.  Moluc- 
cana  (L.)  Willd.,  order  EupHorbiacecz)  yield  a  valuable  oil  used  as  food 
and  in  the  arts.  The  tree  is  a  native  of  the  Moluccas  and  the  southern 
islands  of  Polynesia,  but  is  cultivated  in  tropical  and  subtropical  regions 
of  both  the  Old  and  the  New  World,  including  Florida  and  California. 

The  fruit  is  nearly  globular,  5-6  cm.  in  diameter,  and  has  two  locules, 
each  containing  a  single  dark-brown,  chestnut-shaped  seed  about  30 
mm.  in  diameter,  •  consisting  of  a  hard  spermoderm  2-5  mm.  thick,  a 
bulky  endosperm,  and  in  the  axis  of  the  endosperm  a  thin  embryo 
with  broadly  heart-shaped,  leaf-like  cotyledons  and  a  short  radicle. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Wichmann  made  a  thorough  microscopic  study  of  candlenut  seeds 
on  the  market  in  1880,  and  found  the  structure  in  most  details  analogous 
to  that  of  the  castor-bean.  His  material,  however,  lacked  tissues  cor- 
responding to  the  epidermis  and  subepidermal  layer  of  the  castor-bean, 
and  his  observations  as  well  as  my  own  further  indicate  that  such  tissues 
may  have  been  present  in  the  original  seed  but  were  removed  before 
reaching  the  market. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  179).  i.  Thin-walled  Palisade  Cells  (p).  Al- 
though probably  not  the  epidermis,  this  is  the  outermost  layer  of  the 
commercial  seed.  The  prismatic,  thin-walled  cells  are.  colorless  and 
filled  with  a  granular  mass  of  calcium  carbonate. 

2.  Sclerenchymalized  Palisade  Cells  (P).  These  cells  correspond  in 
structure  with  the  brown  palisade  cells  of  the  castor-bean,  but  are 
characterized  by  their  much  greater  height,  which  varies  from  1.5  to 
over  2.5  mm.  Both  the  porous  walls  and  the  cell-contents  are  of  a 
brown  color. 


CANDLENUT.     POPP  Y-SEED. 


223 


3.  Parenchyma  (s).     This  layer  is  characterized  by  the  narrow,  greatly 
elongated  pores  of  the  cell-walls  and  the  cystolith-like  masses  of  calcium 
oxalate  contained  in  the  cells.     The  cells  increase 

in  size  from  without  inward  and  have  intercellular 
spaces  at  the  corners. 

4.  Compressed  Cells  form  the  inner  layers. 
The    Endosperm    contains,  in   addition   to   oil, 

aleurone  grains  from  8-24  {J.  in  diameter,  similar  to 
those  of  the  castor-bean.  A  crystalloid  is  always 
present  in  each  grain,  also  one  to  two  globoids. 

Calcium  oxalate  occurs  in  crystal  clusters  in  the 
cells  but  not  in  the  aleurone  grains. 

Embryo.  The  cells  are  smaller  than  those  of 
the  endosperm,  but  like  the  latter  contain  oil  and 
aleurone  grains. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  cake  is  distinguished  from  castor-pomace 
by  the  greater  height  of  both  layers  of  palisade 
cells  (Fig.  179).  The  colorless  outer  layer  contains 
granules  of  calcium  carbonate;  the  inner  brown 
cells  have  amorphous  contents.  These  latter  often 
reach  2.5  mm.  in  length.  The  narrow,  elongated 
pores  in  the  parenchyma  of  the  third  layer  are  FlG.  I?9.  candlenut 
more  or  less  evident.  Aleurone  grains  similar  to 
those  of  the  castor-bean  form  a  large  part  of  the 
material. 

POPPY-SEED. 

The  poppy  plant  (Papaver  somnijerum  L.  order 

Papaveracece),  a  native  of  the  Orient,  is  now 
cultivated  in  various  parts  of  the  Old  and  New 
World. 

Two  distinct  varieties  are  recognized,  the 

j  white,  and    the    black  or    blue.     The    white 

poppy  is  grown  chiefly  for  the  production  of 

FlG.    1 80.      Poppy     (Papaver  ,  J 

somnijerum).  /seed.  II em-  opium,  the  black  for  the  seed,  from  which  is 

Xi6.    (WINTON.)  expressed  poppy  oil. 

The  anatropous  seeds  (Fig.  180),  are  very  small,  seldom  over  i  mm. 

long,  and  kidney-shaped,  one  end  being  slightly  broader  than  the  other. 


(Aleurites  triloba). 
Spermoderm  in  cross 
section.  p  thin- 
walled  palisade  cells; 
P  brown  sclerenchy- 
matized  palisade  cells; 
ngy  parenchyma. 


s  spo 
(Moi 


OELLER.) 


224 


OIL  SEEDS. 


The  hilum  and  chalaza  are  in  a  notch,  connected  by  a  short  raphe,  the 
chalaza  being   nearer  the  broad  end  of  the  seed.     Under  the  lens  the 


FlG.  181.  Poppy  Seed  in  cross  section.  5  spermoderm  consists  of  ep  epidermis,  k  crystal 
layer,  /  fiber  layer,  q  cross  cells  and  n  netted  cells;  E  endosperm,  contains  al  aleurone 
grains.  Xi6o.  (WINTON.) 

surface  is  beautifully  reticulated.     The  straight  embryo  is  embedded  in 
the  bulky  endosperm. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  181,  S\  Fig.  182).  Cross  sections  are  prepared 
after  soaking  the  seed  in  water  and  may  be  cleared  with  chloral  or  alkali. 
After  soaking  the  whole  seed  for  about  24  hours  in  ij  per  cent  sodium 
hydrate  solution,  the  first  four  layers  readily  separate  from  the  fifth. 


-pig" 


ep- 


FIG.  182.     Poppy.     Spermoderm  in  surface  view,     ep  epidermis;   k  crystal  layer;   /  fiber 
layer;  q  cross  cells;  n  netted  cells  containing  pig  pigment.     Xi6o.     (WINTON.) 

Subsequent  treatment  with  hydrochloric  acid  dissolves  out  the  calcium 
oxalate,  and  staining  with  chlorzinc  iodine  or  safranin  renders  the  outer 
layers  more  distinct. 


POPPY-SEED.  225 

1.  The  Epidermal  Cells  (ep)  are  polygonal  and  of  enormous  size, 
corresponding  to  the  network  on  the  seed.     As  appears  in  cross  section, 
the  cells  are  collapsed  except  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  radial  walls. 
In  surface  view  the  radial  walls  are  sinuous  and  thin,  what  are  often 
considered  the  thick  dark  walls  of  this  layer  being  not  the  walls  at  all, 
but  the  ribs  formed  by  the  thickening  of  the  second  and  third  layers. 

2.  Crystal  Layer  (k).     On  the  ribs,  the  cells  of  this  layer  are  more  or 
less  tangentially  elongated,  but  between  the  ribs,  are  isodiametric  and 
polygonal,  the  elongated  cells  having  longer  radial  walls  than  the  others, 
thus  contributing  to  the  formation  of  the  ribs.     They  contain  fine,  granu- 
lar crystals  of  calcium  oxalate.     Meyer  has  demonstrated  that  the  blue 
color  is  due  to  the  interference  of  light  by  the  crystals  over  the  brown 
cells  in  the  background,  and  is  the  same  phenomenon  as  causes  the  ap- 
parent blue  color  of  the  sky  and  the  iris  of  the  eye.     As  soon  as  these 
crystals  are  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid,  the  seed  appears  brown. 

3.  Fiber  Layer  (/).     The  fibers  of  this  layer  are  15-40  /*  broad  and 
are  parallel  to  the  curved  axis  of  the  seed.     Seen  in  cross  section,  this 
layer  is  thickest  in  the  ribs,  the  walls  throughout  being  distinctly  thick- 
ened and  stratified.     In  surface  view  they  are  rendered  more  distinct  by 
chlorzinc  iodine. 

4.  Cross  Cells  (q).     The  fourth  layer  consists  of  moderately  thick- 
walled,  transversely  elongated,    pointed  cells  arranged    side   by   side   in 
rows.     The  walls  are  impregnated  with  a  brown  material. 

5.  Netted  Cells  (n).     Owing  to  the  netted- veined,  colorless  walls  and 
the  presence  of  deep  brown  contents,  these  cells  are  particularly  strik- 
ing.    They  are  arranged  transversely  and  are  often  side  by  side  in  rows. 
The  cell-contents  are  insoluble  in  alkali  and  do  not  give  the  tannin  re- 
action. 

Some  authors  designate  the  cells  of  this  layer  " pigment  cells,"  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  in  the  white  poppy  they  do  not  contain  pigment. 

Meyer,  Tschirch  and  Oesterle,  Vogl,  and  Hanausek  describe  an  inner 
layer  of  thin-walled  cells,  but  this  layer  is  not  usually  evident  except 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  hilum. 

The  Endosperm  (Fig.  181,  E)  contains  aleurone  grains  up  to  3  /* 
in  the  outer  layers  and  7  //  in  the  inner  layers,  each  grain  containing  sev- 
eral globoids  and  crystalloids. 

Embryo.  In  the  cotyledons  there  is  only  one  layer  of  palisade  cells, 
and  these  cells  are  only  slightly  elongated.  The  aleurone  grains  are 
like  those  of  the  endosperm. 


226  OIL  SEEDS. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Poppy-seeds  are  used  in  bread  and  pastries;  poppy-cake,  the  by- 
product in  the  manufacture  of  poppy-oil,  is  fed  to  cattle. 

The  ground  material  should  be  examined  directly,  also  after  soaking 
successively  in  ij  per  cent  soda  solution  and  hydrochloric  acid,  or 
after  treatment  by  Hebebrand's  method.  Fragments  consisting  of  the 
first  four  layers,  showing  the  ribs,  and  separate  fragments  of  the  layer 
of  netted  cells  with  brown  contents,  are  readily  identified  (Fig.  182). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Benecke  (2);  Berg  (3);  Bohmer  (6,  10,  23); 

Collin  (8);   Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16,  17,  48);    Harz  (18);   Meyer,  A.  (27);   Planchon  et 

Collin  (34);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Vogl  (45). 

GODFRIN:  Etude  histologique  sur  les  tegument  seminaux  des  Angiospermes.  Soc. 
d.  Sci.  d.  Nancy,  1880,  109. 

HOCKAUF:    B  eobachtungen  an  Handelsmohnen.     Chem.  Ztg.  1903. 

MACH:    Mohn  und  Mohnkuchen.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1902,  57,  421. 

MEUNIER:  Les  teguments  seminaux  des  Papaveracess.  "La  Cellule,"  Recueil  de 
Cytologie  et  d'Histologie  generate.  1891,  7,  377. 

MICHALOWSKI:  Beitrag  zur  Anatomic  und  Entwicklungsgeschichte  von  Papaver 
somniferum  L.,  I  Theil,  Dissertation,  Gratz,  1881. 

TSCHIRCH:  Entwicklungsgeschichtliche  Studien.  Schw.  Woch.  Chem.  Pharm.  1897^ 
35,  No.  17. 

WINTON  :  The  Anatomy  of  Certain  Oil  Seeds  with  Especial  Reference  to  the  Micro- 
scopic Examination  of  Cattle  Foods.  Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1903,  175. 

OLIVE. 

Of  the  vegetable  oils  commonly  used  as  foods  or  in  the  arts,  olive 
oil  is  the  only  one  derived  from  the  flesh  of  a  fruit  (Olea  Euro  pea  L.,  order 
Oleacece). 

Olives  differ  greatly  in  size  and  shape  according  to  the  variety.  When 
ripe  they  are  of  a  purple  color.  Morphologically  the  fruit  is  a  drupe, 
corresponding  in  general  structure  to  the  peach  and  apricot. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Ripe  olives  preserved  in  brine  furnish  suitable  material  for  studying 
all  the  histological  elements  except  the  salt-soluble  aleurone  grains  of 
the  endosperm  and  embryo.  After  soaking  several,  days  in  alcohol,  the 
fruit  flesh  is  sufficiently  hardened  to  permit  the  cutting  of  sections.  These 
should  be  soaked  for  a  time  in  ether  to  remove  fat. 


OLiyE. 

Pericarp,  i.  The  Epicarp  (Fig.  183)  consists  of  thick  walled  polyg- 
onal cells  about  25  /*  in  diameter.  This  layer,  as  well  as  the  mesocarp, 
contains  a  purple  pigment,  which,  as  Hanausek  first  noted,  becomes  in- 
tensely red  on  addition  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid. 

2.  The  Mesocarp  contains  so  much  oil,  that  a  clear  idea  of  its  struc- 
ture can  be  gained  only  after  extraction  with  ether. 

In  the  outer  portion  the  thin-walled  cells  are  isodiametric,  but  in 
the  middle  and  inner  portion  they  are  radially  elongated.  Distributed 


FIG.  183.     Olive  (Olea  Europea).     Epicarp  and  two  stone  cells  of  the  mesocarp,  seen  from 

beneath.     (MOELLER.) 

here  and  there  among  this  thin-walled  tissue  are  stone  cells  (Fig.  183) 
remarkable  for  their  fantastic  shapes  and  especially  for  the  curious 
beaked,  T-  or  Y-shaped  excrescences,  occurring  at  the  ends  and  angles. 
Being  colorless,  the  stone  cells  are  not  readily  found  in  water  mounts, 
especially  if  the  oil  has  not  been  extracted;  but  on  treatment  with  alkali, 
they  are  colored  a  bright  yellow. 

3.  Endocarp  (Fig.  184,  a,  m,  i).  The  oblong  stone  consists  of  a 
dense  conglomerate  of  sclerenchymatized  tissues  forming  an  envelope 
about  the  seed  1-3  mm.  thick.  In  cross  sections  prepared  by  grinding 
on  a  whetstone  (p.  13),  the  curious  forms  and  grouping  of  the  stone 
cells  are  clearly  evident.  These  stone  cells,  like  those  of  the  mesocarp, 
are  colorless  and  diverse  in  form,  although  lacking  conspicuous  excres- 
cences. In  the  outer  and  middle  layers,  both  elongated  and  isodiametric 


228 


OIL  SEEDS. 


forms  occur,  the  former  extending  in  all  directions;  in  the  inner  layers 
all  the  cells  are  transversely  elongated.  Most  of  them  are  thick-walled, 
with  exceedingly  narrow  lumen;  occasional  cells,  however,  have  lumens 
broader  than  the  walls. 

An  innermost  layer  (en)  composed  of  compressed  thin- walled  paren- 
chyma cells  lines  the  cavity. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  184).  i.  The  Epidermal  Cells  (ep)  seen  in  sur- 
face view  are  highly  characteristic,  owing  to  their  unequally  swollen 


FIG.  184.  Olive.  Elements  in  surface  view,  p  oil  cells  of  mesocarp;  o,  m,  i  stone  cells 
and  fibers  of  endocarp;  en  inner  layer  of  endocarp;  ep  outer  epidermis  of  spermoderm; 
ea  outer  layer  of  endosperm ;  E  and  e  parenchyma  of  cotyledon;  sp  spiral  vessel.  Xi6o. 

(MOELLER.) 

and  colorless  walls.  They  are  more  or  less  elongated,  often  reaching 
a  length  of  300  /*. 

2.  Parenchyma.  Beneath  the  epidermis  are  several  layers  of  thin- 
walled  cells,  through  which  ramify  the  numerous  bundles.  The  cells 
in  the  outer  layers  are  sharply  polygonal;  those  further  inward  are  rounded; 
the  innermost  are  compressed.  Numerous  crystals  of  various  forms  are 
the  conspicuous  contents. 

The  Endosperm  (Fig.  184)  makes  up  the  bulk  of  the  seed. 

1.  The  Outer  Layer  (ea)  consists  of  irregularly  polygonal  cells.     Both 
the  outer  walls  and  the  outer  ends  of  the  radial  walls  are  greatly  thickened, 
the  latter,  in  surface  view,  showing  distinct  pores. 

2.  Parenchyma.     The  remainder  of  the  endosperm  consists  of  thin- 
walled  parenchyma,   containing  fat  and  proteid  grains. 


OLIVE.  229 

Embryo  (E,  e).  Embedded  in  the  axis  of  the  endosperm  is  the  straight 
embryo,  with  oblong  cotyledons  several  times  the  length  of  the  radicle. 
The  cells  are  smaller  and  thinner-walled  than  those  of  the  endosperm, 
although  containing  the  same  materials. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Olive  Pomace,  consisting  of  the  fruit  pulp  obtained  as  a  by-product 
in  the  manufacture  of  olive  oil,  is  used  to  some  extent  as  a  cattle  food, 
and  also  as  an  adulterant. 

Characteristic  of  this  pulp  are  the  grotesque  stone  cells  (Fig.  183) 
becoming  bright  yellow  on  the  addition  of  alkali,  and  the  purple  pigment 
of  the  epicarp  and  mesocarp,  which  changes  to  an  intense  red  on  addition 
of  sulphuric  acid. 

Olive  Stones  are  ground  to  a  considerable  extent  in  France  as  an 
adulterant  for  white  pepper  and  other  spices,  and  are  shipped  to  other 
European  countries,  as  well  as  to  America. 

The  stone  cells  (Fig.  184,  a,  m,  i)  are  characterized  by  their  colorless 
walls  and  contents,  and  by  the  bright  yellow  color  produced  by  alkali, 
while  those  of  pepper  are  yellow  and  often  contain  a  brownish  material. 
Especially  characteristic  are  the  large  epidermal  cells  (ep)  of  the  spermo- 
derm  with  swollen  walls.  The  outer  layer  of  the  endosperm  (ea)  is  also  a 
striking  element,  but  like  the  last,  can  be  found  only  after  diligent  search. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bohmer  (23);  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (10,  16,  17); 
Mace  (26);  Moeller  (29);  Schimper  (37);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (45), 

Also  see  Bibliography  of  Pepper,  p.  509. 

BOTTINI:  Sulla  struttura  dell'oliva.     Nuov.  giorn.  bot.  ital.  1889,  21,  369. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F. :  Ueber  einige,  gegenwartig  im  Wiener  Handel  vorkommende  Gewiirz- 

falschungen.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters,  Hyg.  1894,  8,  95. 
LANDRIN:  Falsification  du  poivre  a  Taide  des  grignons  d'olive.     Jour,  pharm.  10,  194. 


PART  IV. 

LEGUMES. 


LEGUMES     (Leguminoscz). 

Plants  of  this  family  are  characterized  morphologically  by  their  pods 
which  are  dehiscent  on  both  sutures,  physiologically  by  their  power  of 
assimilating  atmospheric  nitrogen  through  the  agency  of  micro-organisms 
residing  in  the  root  tubercles,  and  anatomically  by  the  structure  of  the 
spermoderm  and  starch  grains. 

Most  of  the  species  of  economic  importance  belong  in  the  subfamily 
Papilionacece,  so-called  because  of  their  butterfly-like  flowers,  of  which 
the  sweet  pea  is  a  type;  a  few  species,  however,  including  the  genera 
Cassia  and  Ceratonia  have  more  regular  flowers  and  are  classed  in  the 
subfamily  C&salpiniecz. 

The  reserve  material  of  the  seed  in  many  species  is  starchy,  but  in 
some  species  starch  is  absent,  the  reserve  material  being  largely  proteid 
matter  or,  in  exceptional  cases,  cellulose. 

Microscopic  Characters  of  Leguminous  Seeds. 

Only  the  seeds  of  most  legumes  are  of  interest  to  the  food  micro- 
copist,  but  notable  exceptions  are  the  green  pods  of  snap  beans  eaten 
as  a  vegetable,  the  dried  saccharine  husks  of  the  carob  bean,  serving  as 
food  for  man  and  beast,  and  the  shells  of  the  peanut  used  as  an  adulterant 
of  foods. 

The  Spermoderm  (Fig.  186,  5)  in  all  the  species  of  economic  im- 
portance has  three  layers,  of  which  the  two  outer  are  one  cell  thick  and 
the  third  is  several  cells  thick.  An  inner  epidermis  is  seldom  evident. 
The  hilum  in  some  species  is  more  or  less  elongated,  and  pierced  through 
its  major  axis  by  a  narrow  slit. 

i.  The  Palisade  Layer  (pal),  or  outer  epidermis,  is  of  great  diag- 
nostic value,  not  only  in  determining  that  a  leguminous  product  is  present, 
but  also  in  naming  the  particular  legume.  The  cells  are  prismatic,  with 
thick  walls,  and  in  all  the  common  species  except  the  peanut  and  tonka 
bean  are  much  higher  than  broad.  The  lumen  in  the  inner  portion  is 
broader  than  in  the  outer,  where  it  is  usually  a  mere  line. 

On  both  sides  of  the  hilum  slit  two  layers  of  palisade  cells  are  present 


-  234 


LEGUMES. 


(Fig.  185,  pl  and  p2),  while  immediately  beneath  the  slit  in  many  species 
is  a  group  of  sclerenchyma  cells  with  reticulated  walls  (Tri),  which, 
according  to  Tschirch  and  Oesterle,  probably  serve  to  prevent  the 
entrance  of  fungi. 

The  "light  line,"  a  light-colored  band  of  different  refractive  power 
from  the  rest  of  the  layer,  may  be  seen  in  cross  section.     This  line  varies 


nsp 


FIG.  185.  Pea  (Pisum  arvense).  Cross  section  of  spermoderm  through  nsp  hilum  slit. 
p  palisade  epidermis  with  double  layer  of  cells  on  both  sides  of  the  hilum  slit;  x  sub- 
epidermal  layer  expanding  beneath  the  hilum  into  a  cushion  of  cells  in  which  is  em- 
bedded Tri  a  cluster  of  porous  sclerenchyma  cells.  (TSCHIRCH  and  OESTERLE.) 

in  its  breadth  and  distance  from  the  outer  surface  according  to  the  species, 
and  is  of  some  importance  in  diagnosis. 

In  surface  view  the  cells  are  sharply  polygonal,  and  often  show  radi- 
ating lines,  due  to  the  pores  separating  the  ribs  which  make  up  the 
thickened  walls.  Focusing  on  the  outer  surface  it  has  a  shagreen-like 
appearance  due  to  the  strips  which  make  up  the  thickened  walls  (Fig. 
190). 

After  macerating  with  hot  alkali  or  grinding,  the  palisade  cells  be- 
come isolated  and,  owing  to  their  rod-shaped  form,  assume  a  horizontal 
position. 

2.  The  Column  Cells  (sub)  forming  the  subepidermal  layer  are  com- 
monly hour-glass  or  I-shaped  (Fig.  189)  without  evident  contents,  but 
in  the  common  bean  they  are  prismatic  and  contain  well-formed  crystals 
of  calcium  oxalate  (Figs.  186  and  187). 


MICROSCOPIC  CHARACTERS  OF  LEGUMINOUS  SEEDS.  235 

In  some  species  the  walls  of  the  hour-glass  cells  are  ribbed,  giving 
them  in  surface  view  the  appearance  of  a  sunburst. 

3.  Parenchyma  (/>),  usually  of  the  spongy  type,  forms  several  layers, 
seen  to  advantage  only  in  surface  view.     The  character  of  the  cells  differs 
in  different  species  and  different  layers  of  the  same  species. 

4.  The  Inner  Epidermis  when  present,  is  of  thin-walled  cells. 
The   Perisperm  is  commonly  absent,  and  when  present,  as  for  ex- 
ample in  the  soy  bean,  is  not  of  interest. 

The  Endosperm  in  some  species  forms  an  obliterated  layer  (e.g.  bean, 
pea,  etc.),  in  others  a  dense,  horny  structure  with  thickened  cell- walls 
(e.g.  carob  bean),  and  in  others  still  a  tissue  with  thick  mucilaginous 
inner-cell  membranes  (e.g.  fenugreek). 

Embryo  (C).  This  is  always  relatively  large  and  has  large  coty- 
ledons, while  in  seeds  lacking  a  well-developed  endosperm  it  makes  up 
by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  seed.  The  contents  are  proteid  matter 
and  fat  together  with,  in  many  species,  starch. 

Leguminous  starch  (am)  is  characterized  by  the  large  ellipsoidal 
grains  with  elongated,  more  or  less  branching  hilum,  although  in  some 
species  the  forms  of  the  grains  are  irregular,  and  in  the  peanut  and  tonka 
bean  are  normally  globular. 

The  hilum  is  indistinct  in  some  species,  but  is  brought  out  clearly  by 
polarized  light. 

CHIEF  CHARACTERS. 

Of  chief  value  in  recognizing  a  leguminous  seed  are  the  thick-walled 
palisade  cells,  the  subepidermal  cells  (usually  hour-glass  shaped)  and, 
when  present,  the  ellipsoidal  starch  grains  with  elongated  hilum. 

The  parenchyma  of  the  spermoderm  is  usually  spongy.  An  endo- 
sperm with  thickened  walls  is  present  in  some  species. 

Analytical  Key  to  Leguminous  Seeds. 

A.  Seed  contains  starch. 

(a)  Starch  grains  evident  without  treatment  with  reagents  or  by  direct  treatment 

with  iodine  solution;  seed  not  aromatic. 

*  Starch  grains  globular,  under  15  /*  in  diameter;  palisade  cells  under  25  ^  high, 
i.  Palisade  cells  in  surface  view  over  25  /<  broad  with  beaded  walls  and 

broad  lumen Peanut  (Arachis  hypogaea). 

**  Starch  grains  ellipsoidal,  over  15  l*  long;   palisade  cells  over  25  J*  but  under 

loo  ft  high. 
+  Palisade  cells  with  flat  outer  ends. 

II  Column  cells  prismatic  containing  crystals. 


236  LEGUMES. 

2.  Palisade  cells  under  60  /*  high;  column  cells  thin-walled  with  large 

crystals Common  Bean  (Phaseolus  vulgaris}. 

3.  Palisade  cells  over  60  /*  high;  column  cells  thick-walled  with  small 

crystals Spanish  Bean  (P.  mulliflorus}. 

||  ||  Column  cells  hour-glass  shaped  without  crystals,  under  20  ft  high. 

4.  Starch  grains  irregularly  ellipsoidal  up  to  40  /*  long. 

Common  Pea  (Pisum  sativum,  P.  arvense}. 

5.  Starch  grains  irregularly  ellpisoidal  up  to  90  /*  long. 

Adzuki  Bean  (Phaseolus  Mungo,  var.  glaber}- 

6.  Starch  grains  regularly  ellipsoidal  up  to  35  /*  long. 

China  Bean  (Vigna  Caljang} . 
||  ||  ||  Column  cells  hour-glass  shaped  without  crystals,  25-35  /*  high. 

7.  Starch  grains  irregularly  ellipsoidal  up  to  65  fJ-  long. 

Lima  Bean  (Phaseolus  lunalus}. 
+  +  Palisade  cells  with  rounded  or  pointed  outer  ends. 

8.  Palisade  cells  under  45  /*  high  with  light  line  up  to  10  ft  broad. 

Lentil  (Ervum  Lens}. 

9.  Palisade  cells  50-65  /*  high  with  light  line  10-15  («  broad. 

Vetch  (Vicia  saliva,  V.  vittosa,  V.  hirsuta^. 

***  Starch  grains  ellipsoidal,  over  15  /*  long;   palisade  cells  over  100  /*  high. 
+  Column  cells  in  one  layer,  hour-glass  shaped. 

10.  Starch  grains  up  to  40  y-  long Egyptian  Bean  (Dolichos  Lablab). 

11.  Starch  grains  up  to  70  ft  long Horse  Bean  (Faba  vulgaris}. 

+  +  Column  cells  in  several  layers,  hour-glass  shaped,  simple  in  outer,  com- 
pound in  inner,  layers. 

12.  Starch  grains  up   to   50  ft   long Jack  Bean  (Canavalia}. 

****  Starch  grains  ellipsoidal  over   15  ft   long;    palisade  cells   variable   in   height 

(35-125  fi). 

13.  Palisade  cells  with  rounded  outer  ends.-  -Chick  Pea  (Cicer  arietinum). 
(6)  Starch  grains  evident  only  after  treatment  successively  with  a  mixture  of  hot 

ether  and  alcohol  and  iodine  solution;    seed  aromatic. 

14.  Palisade  cells  over  50  /*  high,  under  25  /*  broad,  with  dark  contents; 

starch  grains  globular,  under  10  /*. 

Tonka  Bean  (Coumarouna  odorala}. 
B.  Seed  contains 'no  starch,  or  only  traces. 

(a)  Palisade  cells  pointed;  column  cells  ribbed;  endosperm  mucilaginous. 

15.  Palisade  cells  30-40  /*  high;    column  cells  15-45  /*  broad. 

Lucerne  (Medicago  saliva}. 

1 6.  Palisade  cells  60-75  A*  high;  column  cells  30-75'^  broad;  seed  aromatic. 

Fenugreek  (Trigonetta  Fcenum-Grcecum} . 

17.  Palisade  cells  125-150  /*  high;   column  cells  35-75  j"  high. 

Astragalus  (A.  baticus}. 

(b)  Palisade  cells  with  flat  or  rounded  outer  ends;   column  cells  not  ribbed. 
*  Palisade  cells  straight,  under  100  /*  high. 

18.  Palisade  cells    50-60  /*   high,    6-15  /*  broad;    column  cells    35-50  p 

high;  easily  isolated Soy  Bean  (Glycine  hispida). 


ANALYTICAL  KEY   TO  LEGUMINOUS  SEEDS.  237 

19.  Palisade  cells  60-75  P-  high,  3-7  ft  broad;    column  cells  16-25  /*  high, 

endosperm  with  enormously  thickened  walls. 

Coffee  Cassia  (C.  occidentalis) . 
**  Palisade  cells  straight,  over  100  n  high. 

20.  Palisade   cells  150  p   high,  blunt  spindle-shaped    after   isolation   in 

water Soudan  Coffee  (Parkia). 

21.  Palisade  cells  170-250  /*  high,  with  swollen  outer    walls;   endosperm 

with    enormously    thickened   walls;    brown    wrinkled    bodies    in 
mesocarp,  becoming  violet  on  treating  with  alkali. 

Carob  Bean  (Ceratonia  Siliqua}. 
***  Palisade  cells  geniculate,  over  100  ft  high. 

22.  Outer   f   of    palisade   cells   straight;   inner  J  geniculate   with  dark 

contents;  epidermis  of  cotyledons  porous. 

Yellow  Lupine  (Lupinus  luteus). 

23.  Outer  f  of  palisade  cells  straight,  inner  %  geniculate  with  colorless 

contents;  light  line  2-6  /*;   epidermis  of  cotyledon  not  porous. 

White  Lupine  (L.  albus). 

24.  Outer    \    of    palisade   cells   straight,    inner  \  geniculate  with  dark 

contents;  light  line  narrow;  epidermis  of  cotyledons  porous. 

Blue  Lupine  (L.  angustifolius). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

BECK:  Die  Samenschale  einiger  Leguminosen.    Sitzb.  K.  K.  Akad.  zu  Wien,  1878,  79. 
CHALON  :  La  graine  de  Legumineuses.     Me'm.  et  Pub.  Soc.  ScL,  Arts  et  Let.  du  Hainaut. 

1875,  55- 
GUIGNARD:  Embryogenie  des  Legumineuses.     Ann.  des   Sc.  nat,  Bot.  1882,  Ser.  VI, 

12,  68. 
MATTIROLO  E  BUSCALIONI:  Ricerche  anatomofisiologiche  sul  tegumenti  seminali   delle 

Papilionacee.     Reprint  from  Memorie  Accad.  Szienze  Torino.     Ser.  II,  42,  1892. 
NADELMANN:   Ueber  Schleimendosperm  der  Leguminosensamen.     Ber.  deutsch.  Bot. 

Ges.  1889,  248. 
PAMMEL:  On  the  Structure  of  the  Spermoderm  of  Several  Leguminous  Seeds.     Bull. 

Torr.  Eot.  C.  1886,  17. 
PAMMEL:  Anatomical  characters  of  the  seeds  of  Leguminosa?,  chiefly  genera  of  Gray's 

Manual.     Transact.  Acad.  Sc.  St.  Louis,  1899,  9,  91. 
PFAFFLIN:   Untersuchungen   iiber   Entwicklungsgeschichte,   Bau    und   Function   der 

Nabelspalte  und  der  darunter  liegenden  Trachiedeninsel  verschiedener  praktisch 
>  wichtiger  Papilionaceen-Samen.     Inaug.-Diss.,  Bern,  1897. 
SCHIPS:  Ueber  die  Cuticula  und  die  Anskleidung  der  Intercellularen  in  den  Samen- 

schalen  der  Papilionaceen.     Ber.  deutsch.  bot.  Ges.  1893,  11,  311. 
SCHLEIDEN:  Beitrage  zur  Entwickelungsgeschichte  der  Bliitenteile  bei  den  Leguminosen 

und  iiber  das  Albumen,  insbesondere  der  Leguminosen.   1838. 
SCROBISCHEWKY:    Recherches   sur   1'embryoge'nie   des   Papilionacees.      Bull.    Congr. 

Internat.  Bot.  et  Hortic.  Petersburg,  1884,  207. 
VAN  TIEGHEM:  Observations  sur  la  lege'rite  et  la  structure  de  1'embryon  de  quelques 

Ldgumineuses.     Mem.  de  Soc.  Sc.  nat.  de  Cherbourg,  19. 


238 


LEGUMES. 


connoN  BEAN. 

The  larger  part  of  the  dried  beans  used  as  food  in  Europe  and  America 
are  the  seeds  of  Phaseolus  vulgaris  Metzger,  now  regarded  by  Wittmack 
as  a  native  of  tropical  America.  To  the  same  species  belong  the  edible- 
podded  varieties — the  so-called  snap-  or  string-beans — also  certain  twining 
varieties  cultivated  for  the  seeds. 

The  hemitropous  seeds  are  more  or  less  kidney-shaped,  although 
the  ratio  of  length,  breadth  and  thickness  varies  greatly  in  the  different 


1- 

pal 

sub- 


am — 


FIG.  1 86.  Common  Bean  (Phaseolus  vul- 
garis). Cross  section  of  outer  portion  of 
seed.  6"  spermoderm  consists  of  pal  pali- 
sade cells  with  /  light  line,  sub  subepi- 
dermal  layer  containing  calcium  oxalate 
crystals,  and  p  spongy  parenchyma;  C 
cotyledon;  ep  epidermis  of  cotyledon;  al 
aleurone  grains;  am  starch  grains.  Xi6o. 

(WlNTON.) 


FIG.  187.  Common  Bean.  Elements  of 
spermoderm  in  surface  view.  p  pali- 
sade cells;  5  subepidermal  cells  with  crys- 
tals; m  spongy  parenchyma.  X  300. 

(MOELLER.) 


varieties,  some  being  nearly  globular,  others  much  elongated,  and  still 
others  strongly  flattened.  In  color  they  are  white,  black,  red,  brown,  or 
mottled.  The  elliptical  hilum  is  situated  in  the  middle  of  one  of  the 
narrow  sides.  A  narrow  slit  follows  the  major  axis  of  the  hilum,  piercing 
the  outer  of  the  underlying  tissues.  Near  one  end  of  the  hilum  is  the 
micropyle  and  near  the  other  end  is  a  small  wart.  The  raphe  enters 
the  seed  at  a  point  near  this  wart. 


COMMON  BEAN.  239 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  seed  consists  of  a  large  embryo  closely  covered  by  a  thin,  brittle 
spermoderm. 

Spermoderm.  i.  The  Palisade  Cells  (Fig.  186,  pal',  Fig.  187,  p),  as 
may  be  seen  in  cross  section,  are  upward  of  60  p.  long,  with  a  narrow  light 
line  adjoining  the  cuticle.  In  the  outer  portion  the  cavity  is  narrow, 
but  broadens  toward  the  inner  end.  The  color  of  the  bean  is  determined 
by  the  color  of  the  contents  of  these  cells.  Beneath  the  hilum  there  are 
two  layers  of  palisade  cells,  both  of  which  are  pierced  by  the  hilum  slit. 

2.  The  Column  Cells  (Fig.  186,  sub;  Fig.  187,  s)  in  this  species  are  not 
hour-glass  shaped  as  in  the  pea  and  many  other  legumes,  but  are  pris- 
matic without  intercellular  spaces.     The  walls  are  moderately  thick,  and 
swell  considerably  in  water  or  alkali.     Each  cell  contains  one,  or  rarely 
two,  large  monoclinic  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate,  which  nearly  fills  the 
cavity.     The  presence  of  large  crystals  in  the  column  cells  is  characteristic 
of  this  species.     Beneath  the  hilum  this  layer  is  absent. 

3.  Spongy  Parenchyma  (Fig.  186,  p;   Fig.   187,  m).    The  cells  are 
largest  and  have  the  thickest  walls  in  the  outer  layers.     In  the  inner  layers 
they  have  long,  narrow  arms  and  exceedingly  thin  walls.    At  the  hilum 
this  layer  forms  a  thick  cushion. 

Embryo.  (Fig.  186,  C;  Fig.  188).  The  two  large  cotyledons  form  the 
bulk  of  the  seed.  Fat  and  proteids  are  present  throughout,  as  is  also 
starch,  except  in  the  epidermal  cells. 

In  the  outer  epidermis  (ep)  the  cells  are  isodiametric,  in  the  inner 
epidermis  they  are  tangentially  elongated  as  in  the  pea. 

The  cells  of  the  Mesophyl  are  large  (often  100  //),  and  have  thick 
(4-9  p)  walls  with  distinct  pores.  Intercellular  spaces  of  moderate  size 
occur  at  the  angles. 

The  starch  grains  vary  up  to  60  /*  in  length,  the  larger  grains  being, 
for  the  most  part,  ellipsoidal  or  kidney-shaped,  seldom  irregularly  swollen 
as  in  the  pea.  A  conspicuous,  branching  cleft,  appearing  black  because 
of  inclosed  air,  is  almost  always  present. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Beans  usually  reach  the  consumer  whole,  and  therefore  unadulterated. 

Bean  Meal  is  a  comparatively  rare  article  of  commerce,  used  chiefly 
as  a  cattle  food.  Coarsely  ground  beans  have  been  employed  as  adul- 
terants of  coffee,  although  less  often  than  peas  and  other  legumes. 

The  starch  (Fig.   186,  am)  is   distinguished  from  pea-starch  by  the 


240  LEGUMES. 

absence  of  irregularly  swollen  forms,  and  the  presence  of  a  distinct 
branching  cleft  in  each  large  grain.  The  cell-walls  of  the  endosperm 
are  thick  and  conspicuously  porous,  whereas  in  the  pea  they  are  usually 
thinner  and  indistinctly  porous. 

Bean  Hulls  serve  as  a  cattle  food  and  adulterant.     In  bean  products 


FIG.  188.     Common    Bean.      Cross  section   of   cotyledon  showing  starch   grains.      X3°°- 

(MOELLER.) 

containing  the  hulls,  the  crystal-bearing  column  cells  (Fig.  187,5)  furnish 
a  ready  means  of  identification. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bohmer  (6);  Greenish  (14);  Hanausek,  T. 
F.  (10);  Harz  (18);  Mace  (26);  Moeller  (29);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et 
Collin  (42);  Vogl  (45);  Wittmack  (10). 

GULLIVER:  On  the  crystals  in  the  Testa  and  Pericarp  of  several  Orders  of  Plants 
and  in  the  other  Parts  of  the  Order  of  Leguminoseae.     Monthly  Micros.  Jour.  1873, 

259- 
HABERLANDT:  Ueber  die  Entwicklungsgeschichte  und  den  Bau  der  Samenschale  bei  der 

Gattung  Phaseolus.     Sitzb.  d.  k.  k.  Akad.  zu  Wien.  1877,  75,  33. 
KOEHLER:  Erbsen,  Bohnen,  Wicken  und  deren  Mullereiprodukte.     Laridw.  Vers.-Stat. 

1901,  55,  401. 
TSCHIRCH:  Ueber  Starkemehlanalysen.     Arch.  d.  Pharm.   1884,  22,  921. 

SPANISH    BEAN. 

Of  the  several  varieties  of  Spanish  bean  (Phaseolus  multifiorus  Willd.) 
in  cultivation,  the  scarlet  runner  and  Dutch  case-knife  bean  are  the  best 
known.  The  scarlet  runner  is  grown  partly  for  the  brilliant  scarlet  flowers, 
and  partly  for  the  flattened  black  and  pink  mottled  seeds.  The  Dutch 
case-knife  bean  has  white  flowers  and  seeds. 


ADZUKl  BEAN.     LIMA  BEAN.  241 

HISTOLOGY. 

In  histological  structure  these  beans  are  much  like  the  common  bean, 
but  the  palisade  cells  are  longer  (60-75  <")  and  the  column-cells  have 
thicker  walls  and  contain  smaller  crystals.  Although  the  column  cells 
are  prismatic  without  intercellular  spaces,  the  radial  walls  are  thickest 
in  the  middle  and  diminish  in  thickness  toward  both  ends,  the  cavity 
being,  as  a  consequence,  hour-glass-shaped.  The  cell  structure  of  the 
embryo  and  the  starch  grains  are  practically  the  same  as  in  the  common 
bean. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Harz  (18);   Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40). 

ADZUKl    BEAN. 

The  adzuki  bean  (P.  Mungo  var.  glaber  Roxbg.)  is  highly  esteemed 
in  Japan  as  food  for  man  and  has  been  introduced  into  the  United  States. 
Other  varieties  of  this  species  are  also  cultivated  in  the  East. 

The  plant  yields  a  seed  8-10  mm.  long,  of  a  rich  wine  color. 

Characteristic  of  this  seed  is  the  narrow,  elongated  hilum  2-3  mm. 

long. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm.  i.  The  Palisade  Cells  are  75  /*  high,  6-15  /*  wide,  and 
contain  a  reddish  pigment. 

2.  The  Column  Cells  are  hour-glass-shaped  like  those  of  the  pea. 
They  are  14-20  fj.  high  and  8-20  /JL  wide. 

3.  The  Parenchyma  is  much  the  same  as  in  the  common  bean. 
Embryo.     The   thin- walled   cells   contain   larger  starch   grains   than 

any  other  common  legume  (often  90  /*).  In  addition  to  the  usual  ellip- 
soidal grains,  trefoil  and  irregular  grains,  such  as  occur  in  the  pea,  are 
numerous.  Their  large  size  serves  to  distinguish  them  from  pea-starch 
and  their  form  as  well  as  size  from  other  leguminous  starches. 

LlflA   BEAN. 

The  small  seeded  Lima  or  Sieva  bean  (Phaseolus  lunaius  L.)  and 
the  true  or  large-seeded  Lima  bean  (P.  lunatus  var.  macrocarpus  Benth.) 
are  natives  of  South  America,  but  are  grown  throughout  the  Western 
Hemisphere,  the  seed  being  eaten  as  a  vegetable  either  green  or  dried. 
The  flattened  white  seeds  of  the  true  Lima  bean  are  20-25  mm.  long  and 
about  half  as  wide. 


242  LEGUMES. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm.  i.  The  Palisade  Cells  are  60-80  /*  long  and  12-20  /.t 
wide. 

2.  Column  Cells.     These   are   quite  unlike   the   column  cells  of   the 
other  members  of  this  genus.     Their  hour-glass  form  distinguishes  them 
from  the  corresponding  cells  of  the  common  and   Spanish  bean,   and 
their  greater  height   (25-35  t1)  from  the  last  named  and  all  the  other 
species  of  Phaseolus  here  described.     The  cells  are  14-35  /*  wide. 

3.  Spongy  Parenchyma.     The    outer  and    innermost    layers    contain 
small  cells,  the  middle  layers  large  cells. 

Embryo.  The  moderately  thick-walled  cells  contain  ellipsoidal,  reni- 
form  and  trefoil-shaped  grains,  which  are,  on  the  average  longer  (up 
to  65  /*)  and  broader  than  in  the  common  bean. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Harz  (18). 

PEA. 

The  field  pea  (Pisum  arvense  L.)  is  grown  both  as  a  forage  plant  and 
for  the  production  of  mature  seeds;  the  garden  pea  (P.  sativum  L.) 
only  as  a  vegetable. 

Peas  of  the  former  species  are  smooth,  nearly  spherical,  and  of  a 
buff  color;  those  of  the  latter  species  are  either  smooth  or  wrinkled. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  Spermoderm  (Figs.  189-192)  is  thin  and  brittle.  The  structure 
at  the  hilum  is  shown  in  Fig.  185;  in  other  parts  it  is  as  follows: 

1.  The   Palisade  Cells  (p)    are    60-100  /*  high,    a    narrow  light   line 
immediately  adjoining  the  cuticle.     In  the  inner  portion  of  each   cell 
the  cavity  is  broad  and  wavy  in  contour. 

2.  The  Column  Cells  (/),  of  typical  hour-glass  form,  are  conspicuous 
both  in  cross  section  and  in  surface  view.     They  never  contain  crystals. 
On  heating  pieces  of  the  hull  with  dilute  alkali  and  "pressing  with  the 
cover-glass,  these  cells  may  be  isolated,  the  hour-glass  form  being  espe- 
cially striking  after  this   treatment.     They  vary  up  to  20  ,w   in  height. 

.  3.  Spongy  Parenchyma  (Fig.  189,  m\  Fig.  192).  The  cells  decrease 
in  size  from  without  inward. 

Embryo,     i.  The  Epidermal  Cells  (Fig.   193,  ep)  of  the  cotyledons 


PEA. 


243 


are   tangentially  elongated  and   arranged  end    to    end   in   rows.     They 
contain  aleurone  grains  and  fat,  but  no  starch. 

2.  The  Parenchyma  (Figs.  193  and  194),  making  up  the  remainder 
of  the  cotyledons,  is  composed  of  large  cells  with  moderately  thick,  non- 
porous  walls,  with  intercellular  spaces 
at  the   angles.      Usually,  but  not  al- 
ways, the  walls  are  thinner  than  in  the 
bean  and  the  intercellular  spaces  are 
larger,  often  extending  from  one  angle 
to  another. 

The  Starch  Grains  (Fig.   193)  are 
commonly  smaller  than  in  the  bean  ' 
(seldom  over  40  ft)  and  among  ellip-. 
soidal,  reniform,  and  globular  forms, 
occur  many  which   are  characterized 
by  irregular,   rounded  protuberances. 
As  a  rule,   comparatively  few   grains 
have  distinct  clefts. 


P 


t  — 


m- 


FIG.  189.  Pea  (Pisum  arvense).  Cross 
section  of  spermoderm.  c  cuticle; 
p  palisade  cells  with  *  light  line;  t 
hour-glass  cells;  sub  subepidermal 
layer;  m  spongy  parenchyma.  Xi6o. 

(MOELLER.) 


DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole  Peas,  as  well  as  pea  hay,  are  highly  prized  in  many  regions 
as  cattle  food.  Roasted  and  flattened  whole  peas  are  used  as  substitutes 
or  adulterants  for  coffee. 

Split  peas,  freed  from  hulls,  are  prepared  for  use  in  soups  and  other 
culinary  articles. 

Pea  Flour,  because  of  its  high  nutritive  value,  is  an  ingredient  of 
many  dietary  preparations  for  infants  and  invalids,  as  well  as  for  soldiers 
and  others  requiring  a  nutritious  and  palatable  food  in  a  concentrated 
form. 

Many  of  the  starch  grains  (Fig.  193,  st)  have  irregular  swollen  pro- 
tuberances, a  phenomenon  of  no  little  value  in  dis- 
criminating between  this  and  bean-starch.  The 
starch  of  the  adzuki  bean  also  displays  this  pecu- 
liarity. Clefts  in  the  grains  are  indistinct  or  want- 
ing. The  parenchyma  of  the  cotyledons  is  seldom 
as  thick  as  in  the  bean  and  shows  much  less  dis- 
tinct pores.  The  individual  cells  are  readily  sepa- 
rated from  one  another  through  the  middle 
lamella,  especially  after  treatment  with  alkali.  This  latter  treatment,  in 


FIG.  190.  Pea.  Pali- 
sade cells  in  surface 
view  showing  the 
outer  surface.  X3oo. 

(MOELLER.) 


244 


LEGUMES. 


the  case  of  roasted  peas,  dissolves  out  the  starch  grains,  leaving  a  char- 
acteristic skeleton  of  colored  proteid  material. 

Pea   Hulls   are    utilized    as    a    cattle    food    and   an  adulterant.      A 


t 

FIG.   191.     Pea.     Elements  of  spermoderm  in  surface  view,     p  palisade  cells;    t  hour-glass 
cells  (subepidermal  layer) ;  e  parenchyma.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

common  coffee  adulterant  in  the   United    States   consists   of   pea    hulls 
made  into  pellets  with  molasses  and  other  ingredients. 


FIG.  192.     Pea,     Outer  layers  of  spongy   parenchyma,     i  intercellular  space;     s  porous 
membrane  at  end  of  arm.     (MOELLER.) 

The  elements  of  the  hull  may  be  studied  in  section  (Fig.   189),  or 
in  surface  view   (Fig.    191)   after  scraping'  with  a  scalpel.     Isolation  of 


PEA.     LENTIL 


245 


the  palisade  and  column  cells  is  accomplished  by  judicious  heating  with 
dilute  alkali  and  side  wise  pressure  with  the  cover-glass.  The  column 
cells  (/)  are  hour-glass  in  form,  without  crystals;  whereas  in  the  com- 
mon bean  they  are  prismatic,  with  large  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 


FIG.  193.  Pea.  Cross  section  of  cotyledon. 
ep  epidermis,  p  parenchyma  containing 
st  starch  grains.  Xi6o.  (MoELLER.) 


FIG.  194.  Pea.  Cotyledon  tissues  in  sur- 
face view,  ep  epidermis;  st  starch  pa- 
renchyma. Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 


The  height  of  the  palisade  cells  (60-100 
is  of  importance  in  diagnosis. 


and  column  cells  (up  to  20  //) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bohmer  (6,  23);  Greenish  (14);  Hanausek, 
T.  F.  (10);  Harz  (18);  Mace  (26);  Moeller  (29,  32);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Vil- 
liers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (45);  Wittmack  (10). 

SEMPOLOWSKI  :  Ueber  den  Bau  der  Schale  landwirthschaftlich  wichtiger  Samen.   Landw. 
Jahrb.  1874,  3,  823. 

LENTIL. 

.Lentils,  the  seeds  of  Lens  esculenta  Moench  (Ervum  Lens  L.),  have 
been  used  in  Oriental  countries  as  food  for  man  since  very  ancient  times. 
Esau  sold  his  birthright  for  a  mess  of  pottage  made  from  this  seed.  At 
present  the  plant  is  cultivated  chiefly  in  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean. 

The  Latin  word  "lens,"  meaning  primarily  lentil,  was  afterward 
applied  by  the  philosophers  to  the  biconvex  magnifying  glass  because  of 
its  resemblance  to  the  lentil  in  shape.  The  seeds  are  gray-brown  or  red 
in  color  and  5-7  mm.  in  diameter.  The  long  and  narrow  hilum,  as  well 
as  the  micropyle  and  raphe,  are  on  the  narrow  edge. 


246 


LEGUMES. 


HISTOLOGY. 

The  Spermoderm  (Fig.  195,  S)  is  i  mm.  thick  with  layers  much  the 
same  as  in  the  pea. 

i.  The  Palisade  Cells  (Fig.  195,  pal)  are  45  /JL  high,  8  /*  broad,  have 

rounded  outer  ends,  over  which  the  cuticle 
is  extended  in  the  form  of  blunt-pointed 
papillae.  A  light  line  nearly  10  /*  broad 
lies  directly  beneath  the  cuticle,  but  the 
remainder  of  the  walls  are  yellow-brown. 


am 


FlG.  196.  Lentil.  Hour-glass 
cells  (subepidermal  layer) 
of  spermoderm  in  surface 
view.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 

2.  The  Column  Cells  (sub)  of  hour- 
layer)  and  p  spongy  parenchyma;    glass  form  are  18—35  /*  broad  and  12— 

c  cotyledon  with  ep  epidermis  and 


FIG.  195.  Lentil  (Lens  esculenta). 
Outer  portion  of  seed  in  cross  sec- 
tion. 5  spermoderm  consists  of  pal 
palisade  cells  with  /  light  line,  sub 
hour  -  glass  cells  (subepidermal 


am  starch  cells.    X 1 60.    (WiNTON.) 


22  fi  high.      An    irregular  brown    lump 
nearly  fills  each  cell  (Fig.  196). 
3.  Spongy  Parenchyma  (p).     The  outer  layers  consist  of  very  small 
cells  without  conspicuous  intercellular  spaces.     In  the  middle  layers  the 


FIG.  197.     Lentil  Starch.      Xsoo.     (MOELLER.) 

cells  are  large,  some  of  them  containing  a  brown  substance  showing  the 
reaction  for  tannins. 


CHINA  BEAN. 


247 


Embryo  (Fig.  195,  C).  The  thin- walled  cells  contain  starch  grains 
(Fig.  197)  somewhat  smaller  than  those  in  the  bean  or  pea,  the  largest 
being  but  40  //  long.  In  form  they  are  mostly  ellipsoidal,  although  forms 
with  irregular  excrescences  similar  to  those  occurring  in  the  pea,  are  not 

infrequent. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Ground  lentils  are  distinguished  from  bean  and  pea  products  by  the 
smaller  diameter  (maximum  8  /i)  of  the  palisade  cells  (Fig.  195,  pal), 
their  rounded  or  blunt-pointed  outer  ends,  and  the  broader  light  line. 
The  starch  grains  (Fig.  197)  are  also  smaller. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bohmer  (6,  23);  Greenish  (14);  Harz  (18); 

Mace  (26);  Moeller  (29,  32);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (45). 

BECK:  Vergl.  Anatomic  der  Samen  von  Vicia  und  Ervum.    Sitzb.  Wiener  Akad.  1873,  77. 

SEMPOLOWSKI  :  Ueber  den  Bau  der  Schale  landwirthschaftlich  wichtiger  Samen.   Landw. 

Jahrb.  1874,  3,  823. 

CHINA  BEAN. 

Varieties  of  Vigna  Catjang  Walp  (V.  Sinensis  Endl.,  Dolichos  Sinensis 
L.)  are  highly  prized  in  the  East  for  their  seeds,  and  in  the  Southern 
States  as  a  forage  and  green  manuring  crop. 

Although  known  in  America  as  the  cow 
pea  or  black  pea,  the  plant  is  more  cor- 
rectly a  bean,  and  the  names  China  bean 
and  black-eyed  bean  in  vogue  in  Europe 
are  more  appropriate. 

Black,  white  with  black  eyes,  yellow, 
red,  brown,  and  mottled  seeded  varieties 
are  in  cultivation,  the  size  of  the  some- 
what flattened,  kidney-shaped  seeds  varying 
from  6-10  mm. 


HISTOLOGY. 

The  Spermoderm  (Fig.  198)  consists  of: 
(i)  a  layer  of  palisade  cells  (pal)  60-75  V- 
high  and  6-18  n  broad;  (2)  a  layer  of 
column-cells  (sub)  9-15  JJL  high  and  9-25  /* 
broad;  (3)  several  compressed  layers  of 
spongy  parenchyma  (p). 


FIG.  198.  China  Bean  (Vigna  cat- 
Jang),  Outer  portion  of  seed  in 
cross  section.  S  spermoderm  con- 
sists of  pal  palisade  cells  with  I 
light  line,  sub  hour-glass  cells 
(subepidermal  layer),  and  p  spongy 
parenchyma;  C  cotyledon  with  ep 
epidermis  and  am  starch  cells. 

Xl6o.       (WlNTON.) 


248 


LEGUMES. 


The  Cotyledons   (C)   contain   starch  grains  much  like  those  of  the 
common  bean  though  somewhat  smaller  (maximum  35  ,«),, 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  China  bean  has  smaller  starch  grains  (Fig.  198,  am)  than  most 
of  the  common  legumes.  Compared  with  the  large  grains  of  the  Lima 
or  the  adzuki  bean,  this  characteristic  is  especially  marked.  The 
spermoderm  has  much  the  same  structure  as  in  the  last-named  species. 
The  column  cells  (sub)  are  hour-glass-shaped. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp,  671-674:  Harz  (18);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40). 

SOY    BEAN. 

Numerous  varieties  of  the  soy  or  soja  bean  (Glycine  hispida  Maxim, 
Soja  hispida  Moench),  natives  of  the  Orient,  are  grown  in  China  and 

Japan  for  the  highly  nutritious  seed,  and 
in  Europe  and  America  for  forage  as  well 
as  for  the  seed. 

The  yellow,  brown  or  black  seed 
(5-10  mm.)  in  some  varieties  is  nearly 
globular,  in  others  slightly  flattened  and 
elongated. 

HISTOLOGY. 


al 


FIG.  199.  Soy  Bean  (Glycine  hispi- 
da). Outer  portion  of  seed  in 
cross  section.  5  spermoderm  con- 

.  sists  of  pal  palisade  cells  with  I 
light  line,  sub  hour-glass  cells  (sub- 
epidermal  layer),  and  p  paren- 
chyma; E  endosperm  consists  of 
aleurone  cells  and  compressed 
cells;  C  cotyledon,  with  ep  epi- 
dermis and  al  aleurone  cells. 

Xl6o.       (WlNTON.) 


Marked  features  of  the  soy  bean  are 
the  high  column  cells  of  the  spermo- 
derm, the  presence  of  an  endosperm 
and  the  absence  of  starch  in  the  coty- 
ledons. 

The  Spermoderm  (Fig.  199)  is  closely 
united  with  the  layers  of  the  endo- 
sperm. 

i.  The  Palisade  Cells  (pal)  of  this 
seed  are  of  about  the  same  height 
(50-60  p)  and  diameter  (6-15  //)  as 


those  of  the  common  bean  and,  like 
the  latter,  may  or  may  not  have  colored  contents,  according  to  the  color 
of  the  seed. 


SO  Y  BEAN.     EG  YP  TIAN  B£A  N.  249 

2.  Column  Cells  (sub).     This  layer  is  of  about  the  same  thickness 
as  the  palisade  layer,  being  thicker  than  in  any  of  the  other  common 
legumes.     The  hour-glass  or  I-shaped  cells  are  usually  35-50  p  high, 
but  about  the  hilum  they  often  reach  150  ,«.     In  width  they  vary  from 
16-36  fji.     Since  the  cells  have  a  marked  tendency  to  separate  from  the 
adjoining  layers  and  from  each  other,  isolated  cells  may  usually  be  found 
in  considerable  numbers  in  surface  mounts  obtained  by  scraping  the  inner 
surface  of  the  hull,  or  in  the  ground  seed. 

3.  The  Spongy  Parenchyma  (p)  is  much  compressed  and  presents  no 
characteristic  features. 

An  Endosperm  (E)  consisting  of  a  single  layer  of  moderately  thick- 
walled  aleurone  cells  (15-45  /*)  and  obliterated  cells,  marks  this  seed  as 
an  exception  among  legumes.  The  aleurone  cells  as  seen  in  surface 
view  arc  rectangular  or  polygonal  with  proteid  content. 

Embryo  (C).  The  thin- walled  cells  contain  large  aleurone  grains, 
sometimes  25  fi  in  diameter.  Starch  is  entirely  absent. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  absence  of  starch,  the  presence  of  long  (35-50  //)  I-shaped  column 
cells  (Fig.  199,  sub)  readily  isolated  from  the  surrounding  tissues,  and 
the  presence  of  an  endosperm  layer  (E),  furnish  ready  means  for  the 
identification  of  this  seed. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bohmer  (6.  23);  Harz  (18);  Moeller  (29); 
Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40). 

HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:    Die  Sojabohne.     Irmischia  II,  1882,  No.  7,  44. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:    Ueber  das  Vorkommen  von  Starkemehl  in  der  Sojabohne.  -  Ztschr. 

allg.  osterr.  Apoth.-Ver.  1884,  474. 
HARZ:    Ueber   den    Stark egehalt    der    Sojabohne.     Ztschr.    alig.   osterr.  Apoth.-Ver. 

1885,  40. 
TRIMBLE:    The  Soja  Bean.     Amer.  Jour.  Pharm.  1897,  69. 

EGYPTIAN    BEAN. 

Seeds  of.  the  Egyptian  or  hyacinth  bean  (Dolichos  Lablab  L.,  Lablab 
vulgaris  Savi.)  are  much  eaten  in  the  Tropics. 

In  macroscopic  structure  they  are  characterized  by  their  flattened 
form  and  large  hilum. 


LEGUMES. 


HISTOLOGY. 

Strongly  developed  in  this  species  are:  (i)  The  Palisade  Cells,  125  /* 
or  more  high;  (2)   The  Column  Cells  of  hour-glass  form,  35-55  jj.  high  and 

of  about  the  same  width.  The  Spongy 
Parenchyma  is  not  remarkable.  The 
Starch  Grains  vary  up  to  40  /*  in  length. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Harz 
(18);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40). 

HORSE    BEAN. 

The  name  bean,  now  largely  applied 
to  plants  belonging  to  the  genus  Phaseo- 
lus,  formerly  was  appiled  almost  exclu- 
sively to  the  varieties  of  Faba  vulgaris 
Moench  (Vicia  Faba  L.)  of  which  the 
horse  bean,  also  known  as  the  broad  or 
Windsor  bean,  is  one  of  the  best  known 
examples.  Beans  of  this  species  were  cul- 
tivated by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Tro- 
jans, Greeks,  and  Romans,  as  well  as  by 
the  lake  dwellers  and  other  prehistoric 


races. 

It  is  not  remarkable  that  so  ancient 


am 


FIG.  200.    Horse  Bean  (Faba  vulgaris}.   a  Plant  should  have  numberless  varieties 


Outer  portion  of  seed  in  cross  sec-  widely  different,  especially  as  to  the  size, 

tion.     5  spermoderm  consists  of  pal 

palisade  cells  with  i  light  line,  sub  shape,  and  color  of  the  seeds.     The  best 

known   varieties  have   slightly  flattened 

don  with  ep  epidermis  and  am  starch    seeds  8-1 2  mm.    long    and    two-thirds    as 
cells.       XlOO.      (WlNTON.)  j        mi  •  1  L    J   T--1 

broad.    The  conspicuous  elongated  hilum 
is  not  on  the  side  of  the  seed,  but  at  one  of  the  ends. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  200).  The  palisade  and  column  cells  are  remark- 
able for  their  large  size. 

i.  The  Palisade  Cells  (pal)  are  150-175  /*  long  and  12-20  //  broad. 
A  light  line  20-25  //  broad,  directly  beneath  the  cuticle,  is  distinguishable, 


HORSE  BEAN.    SPRING   VETCH.  251 

although  the  whole  outer  half  of    the  layer  is  colorless.     The  cell-walls 
of  the  inner  portion  are  yellow-brown. 

2.  Column   Cells    (sub).     This    layer    has    strongly  developed    cells, 
35-50  fi  high  and  35-60  /*  broad.     They  are  hour-glass-shaped  with  a 
cavity  only  slightly  constricted  in  the  middle.     The  walls  are  rather  thick. 

3.  Parenchyma   (p).     The  outer  layers  are  of  large  cells   with   few 
intercellular  spaces;    the  middle  layers  are  of  similar  cells   with   deep 
brown  contents;  the  inner  layers  are  of  compressed  spongy  parenchyma. 

Embryo  (C).  The  isodiametric  cells,  with  non-porous  walls  similar 
to  those  of  the  pea,  contain  starch  grains  (am)  up  to  70  /*  in  length. 
Broadly  ellipsoidal  grains,  many  scarcely  longer  than  broad,  also  irreg- 
ular forms,  are  common.  The  hilum  is  often  indistinct. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  enormous  height  of  the  palisade  cells  (Fig.  200,  pal)  and  their 
broad  light  line,  also  the  large  column  cells  (sub),  serve  to  identify  this 
seed  in  powder  form.  Although  the  starch  grains  (am)  are  of  large  size, 
and  more  nearly  circular  in  outline  than  in  most  common  legumes,  too 
much  dependence  should  not  be  placed  on  this  distinction. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bohmer  (6,  23);   Harz  (18);  Mace  (26); 
Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40). 
GODFRIN:  Etude  histologique  sur  les  tegument  seminaux  des  Angiospermes.    Soc.  d. 

Sci.  d.  Nancy.  1880, 109. 
SEMPOLOWSKI:   Ueber   den   Bau   der    Schale    landwirthschaftlich   wichtiger   Samen. 

Landw.  Jahrb.  1874,  3,  823. 

SPRING    VETCH. 

The  spring  vetch  or  tare  (Vicia  saliva  L.)  has  been  cultivated  since 
prehistoric  times  both  for  green  fodder  and  seed,  the  latter  being  used 
to  some  extent  for  human  food.  The  tare  of  the  scriptures  is  not  this 
plant,  but  darnel  (Lolium  temulentum). 

Seeds  of  the  spring  vetch  are  dark  colored,  nearly  globular,  and  5  mm. 
or  less  in  diameter. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  Spermoderm  of  the  vetch  and  lentil  are  much  alike  in  structure. 
i.  The  Palisade  Cells  are  characterized   by   the   rounded   or  blunt- 
pointed  outer  ends,  the  thick  cuticle,  the  broad  light  line  (10-15  /*)  and 


252  LEGUMES. 

the  dark  color  and  moderate  thickness  of  the  walls  in  the  inner  portion 
of  the  layer.  They  are  50-65  /<  high  and  6-10  /«  broad. 

2.  The  Column  Cells  (13-25  ,«  high,  22-40  ft  broad)  are  hour-glass- 
shaped  and  contain  a  dark  material. 

3. .  Parenchyma.  This  tissue  is  not  spongy,  but  true  parenchyma 
without  marked  intercellular  spaces.  The  middle  layers  contain  a  dark, 
tannin-like  material. 

Embryo.  The  non-porous  walled  cells  contain  ellipsoidal  and  irregu- 
larly-shaped starch  grains  each  with  a  more  or  less  distinct  cleft. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Both  the  lentil  and  vetch  have  palisade  cells  with  rounded  or  blunt- 
pointed  outer  walls,  but  in  the  latter  seed  these  cells  are  somewhat  higher 
and  have  a  broader  light  line  (10-15  /.«). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See   General   Bibliography,  pp.   671-674:  Bohmer   (6);    Harz   (18);    Mace   (26); 
Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40). 
BECK:  Vergl.  Anatomic  der  Samen  von  Vicia  und  Ervum.    Sitzb.  Wiener  Akad.  i873> 

77. 
SEMPOLOWSKI:  Ueber  den  Bau  der  Schale  landwirthschaftlich  wichtiger  Samen.    Landw. 

Jahrb.  1874,  3,  823. 

WINTER   VETCH. 

The  winter  or  hairy  vetch  (Vicia  villosa  Roth.),  like  the  spring  vetch, 
is  a  common  forage  plant  in  Europe  and  parts  of 
the  East. 

Although  the  seeds  are  somewhat  smaller  than 
those  of  the  latter  plant,  they  have  practically  the 
same  structure. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bohmer  (23);  Harz 
(18). 

HAIRY    VETCH. 

Among  the    leguminous    plants  "infesting    Euro- 
FIG.  20^  Hairy  Vetch   Pean  grain  fields  the  hairy 'vetch  (Vicia  hirsuta  Koch) 
(Vicia  hirsuta).     a   js  one  of  the  commonest,  the  seeds  often  occurring  in 

fruit  branch;    b  seed, 

natural   size;   c  and   consideraole   quantity   in   the  gram. 

enlarged'         The  seeds  are  globular,  about  2.5  mm.  long,  with 

dark  spots  on  a  somewhat  lighter  field  (Fig.  201). 
The  palisade  cells  are  about   50  a  high,   the  spool-shaped   column 


YELLOW  LUPINE. 


253 


cells  about  15  /£.     Starch  grains  up  to  30  ,«  long  fill  the  cells  of  the  coty- 
ledons. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Vogl  (45). 


1 


YELLOW  LUPINE. 

Lupines  are  cultivated  chiefly  for  forage  or  green  manuring,  but  in 
parts  of  Europe  the  seeds  are  used  for  hu- 
man food,  and   especially   as  a  substitute 
for  coffee. 

The  common  yellow  lupine  (Lupinus 
luteus  L.)  has  a  flattened,  kidney-shaped 
seed  6-9  mm.  long  and  5-7  mm.  wide, 
with  black  spots  on  a  light  background. 
The  round  hilum  is  not  situated  in  the 
cove,  but  in  the  center  of  one  of  the  lobes. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  202,  5;  Fig.  203). 
i.  The  Palisade  Cells  (Fig.  202,  pal]  Fig. 
203,  p)  are  140-170  JJL  long  and  8-18  ,« 
broad,  with  rounded  outer  ends.  The 
roughened  cuticle  is  3-6  JJL  thick  and  the 
narrow  underlying  light  line  2-6  ft  broad. 
The  outer  portion  of  each  cell  for  two- 
thirds  its  entire  length  has  straight  walls 
and  a  narrow  cavity;  the  inner  portion 
has  two  slight  bends  in  opposite  direc-  FlG-  202- 
tions.  Those  cells  lying  underneath  the  cross  section. 


Yellow   Lupine  (Lupinus 
Outer    layers  of  seed  in 
S  spermoderm  con- 
sists  of   pal   palisade  cells   with  / 
light  line,  sub  hour-glass  cells  (sub- 
epidermal    layer),    and    p    spongy 
parenchyma  with  jv  fibro-vascular 
bundle;   C  cotyledon  with  ep  epi- 
dermis and  al  aleurone  cells.  Xioo. 

(WlNTON.) 


dark-colored  spots  oh  the  surface  of  the 
seed  contain  a  dark  substance  situated 
chiefly  in  the  inner  portion  of  the  cavity. 

2.  The   Column  Cells  (Fig.   202,    sub; 
Fig.    203,    /)  are  35-70  ,«  high,   25-50  /* 

broad,  hour-glass-  or  spool-shaped,  much   constricted  in   the  middle. 

3.  Parenchyma  (Fig.  202,  p',    Fig.  203,  sch).     The  cells  in  the  outer 
and  middle  layers  are  sharply  polygonal  with  thin,   finely-porous  walls, 
which  appear  distinctly  beaded  in  surface  view.     Compressed  cells  make 
up  the  inner  layers. 


254 


LEGUMES. 


Embryo  (C).  As  noted  by  Bohmer,  the  outer  epidermal  cells  of 
the  cotyledons  are  finely  porous;  these  pores,  however,  are  confined 
to  the  radial  walls  and  the  edges  of  the  tangential  walls. 

The  remainder  of  the  cotyledons  consists  of  Isodiametric  cells  with 
much  swollen,  porous  walls,  often  15-25  p  thick.  This  thickening  is 
especially  marked  at  the  angles.  Ovoid  aleurone  grains  up  to  20  JJL,  often 
containing  large  crystalloids,  are  the  only  visible  cell-contents.  Starch 
is  entirely  absent. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

All  the  common  lupines  have  high  palisade  cells  (Fig.  202,  sub),. 
geniculate  in  their  inner  portions,  hour-glass-shaped  subepidermal  cells 


FIG.  203.     Yellow  Lupine.     Elements  of  spermo-  FIG.    204.     Yellow     Lupine.      Collen- 

derm  in  surface  view,     p  palisade  cells;  t  hour-  chyma  cells  of  cotyledon  with    aleu- 

glass  cells  (subepidermal  layer)  showing  contour  rone  grains,     p  porous  wall.      X  300. 

of   base    and    constriction;    sch   spongy    paren-  (MOELLER.) 
chyma.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

(sub)  and   thick- walled  cotyledon  cells  containing  aleurone  grains  (a/), 
but  no  starch. 

In  the  yellow  lupine,  the  outer  two-thirds  of  each  palisade  cell  (Fig. 
202,  pal)  is  straight  (distinction  from  blue  lupine),  and  the  inner  genic- 
ulate portion  often  contains  dark  contents  (distinction  from  white 
lupine).  The  sharply  polygonal  cells  in  the  outer  layers  of  the  paren- 
chyma of  the  spermoderm,  as  well  as  in  the  epidermis  of  the  cotyle- 
dons, are  distinctly  porous  (distinction  from  white  lupine). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bohmer  (23);   Harz  (18). 
SEMPOLOWSKI:     Ueber  den    Bau   der    Schale    landwirthschaftlich    wichtiger   Samen 
Landw.  Jahrb.  1874,  3,  823. 


WHITE  LUPINE.    BLUE  LUPINE.  255 


WHITE    LUPINE. 

The  white-flowered  lupine  (Lupinus  albus  L.)  has  light -colored, 
flattened,  almost  lenticular  seeds  somewhat  larger  (often  10  mm.)  than 
those  of  the  yellow  and  blue  species.  A  depression  is  present  in  the 
center  of  each  of  the  flat  sides. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  palisade  cells  and  column  cells  are  of  the  same  size  and  structure 
as  those  of  the  yellow  lupine,  except  that  the  light  line  of  the  palisade 
cells  is  broader  (15-20  /*)  and  the  contents  are  colorless.  The  cells  of 
the  spermoderm  and  the  outer  epidermis  of  the  cotyledons  are  not  evi- 
dently porous. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:   Harz  (18);   Moeller  (29);  Vogl  (45). 
GODFRIN:  Etude  histologique  sur  les  tegument  seminaux  des  Angiospermes.     Soc.  d. 

Sci.  d.  Nancy.  1880,  109. 
SEMPOLOWSKI  :    Ueber  den    Bau    der   Schale    landwirthschaftlich    wichtiger   Samen. 

Landw.  Jahrb.  1874,  3,  823. 

BLUE   LUPINE. 

The  type  of  Lupinus  angustijolius  L.  has  mottled  seeds;  the  variety 
leucospermus,  white  seeds.  Both  have  blue  flowers.  The  seeds  are 
rounded  reniform,  5-7  mm.  long. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  structure  corresponds  with  that  of  the  yellow  lupine,  except  as 
regards  the  palisade  layer,  which  has  a  distinct  line  of  demarcation  a 
little  less  than  half  way  between  the  outer  and  inner  end.  In  the  outer 
portion  the  walls  are  straight,  of  even  texture,  and  the  cavity  is  without 
contents;  in  the  inner  portion  the  walls  are  geniculate,  of  uneven  tex- 
ture, and  the  ragged  cavities  contain  a  dark  material  near  the  line  of  de- 
marcation. The  light  line  is  narrow,  as  in  the  yellow  lupine,  but  the 
outer  end  of  the  cell  is  not  rounded. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (10);  Harz  (18);  Vogl  (45). 
GUNDRISER:  Ueber  ein  Kaffeesurrogat  aus  den  Samen  der  blauen  Lupine  (Lupinus 

angustijolius).     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1892,  6,  373. 

SEMPOLOWSKI:    Ueber   den   Bau   der  Schale    landwirthschaftlich    wichtiger   Samen. 
Landw.  Jahrb.  1874,  3,  823. 


256  LEGUMES. 

CHICK   PEA. 

The  East  Indians  prepare  from  the  seeds  of  the  chick  pea  (Cicer 
arietinum  L.)  various  articles  of  daily  food,  as  also  do  the  Spanish  and 
French ;  the  inhabitants  of  Southern  Europe  and  of  some  of  the  Western 
States  of  the  United  States  utilize  them  as  a  substitute  for  coffee. 

Cicer  is  the  old  Latin  name,  and  the  English  " chick"  is  a  corruption 
of  the  same  word,  although  suggesting  the  resemblance  of  the  seed  to  a 


FIG.  205.     Chick  Pea  (Cicer  arietinum).     Cross  section  of       FIG.  206.    Chick  Pea.    Pali- 
spermoderm.      pal    palisade    cells;     sub    hour-glass    cells  sade      cells '   in     surface 

(sub  epidermal    layer);     p    spongy     parenchyma.     Xi6o:  view.      Xi6o.      (MoEL- 

(MOELLER.)  LER.) 

chick.     The   specific   name   "arietinum"   was   adopted   because   of  the 
imagined  resemblance  of  the  seeds  to  a  ram's  head. 

The  irregularly-globular  seeds  vary  from  7-14  mm.  in  diameter,  and 
from  light  buff  to  dark  brown  in  color.  They  are  encircled  on  one  side 
by  a  groove,  through  the  middle  of  which  passes  the  raphe,  and  on  the 
other  by  a  ridge  ending  in  a  pointed  projection  at  the  micropyle.  A  cir- 
cular hilum  i  mm.  in  diameter  is  situated  at  the  base  of  this  projection. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  205).  i.  The  Palisade  Cells  are  characterized  by 
their  variable  length  (35-125  p)  and  by  their  broad  lumens  (Fig.  206), 
the  walls  being  thickened  only  at  the  extreme  outer  and  inner  ends.  The 
thin  radial  walls  are  finely  wrinkled  toward  the  inner  end.  The  cells 
are  12-20  /*  broad. 

2.  The  Column  Cells  are  hour-glass-shaped,  20-30  /*  high  and  25-45  n 
broad. 

3.  The  Parenchyma  is  much  the  same  as  in  the  common  pea. 


CHICK  PEA.     SOUDAN  COFFEE. 


257 


Embryo.  The  isodiametric  cells  of  the  embryo  also  resemble  those 
of  the  common  pea.  They  contain  broadly  ovoid,  sometimes  nearly 
globular,  starch  grains  up  to  35  /z  in  length. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  irregular  height  and  thin  walls  of  the  palisade  cells  (Fig.  205, 
pal)  suffice  for  the  detection  of  this  seed. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Harz  (28);  Moeller  (29);  Tschirch  u. 
Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (45). 

SOUDAN   COFFEE. 

The  negroes  in  Soudan  and  other  parts  of  Africa  prepare  from  the 
seeds  and  other  parts  of  Parkia  Ajricana  R.  Br.  various  articles  of  diet, 


qu 

FIG.  207.  Soudan  Coffee  FIG.  208.  Soudan  Coffee.  Ele- 
ments of  spermoderm.  C  iso- 
lated palisade  cells;  qu  palisade 
cell  in  end  view;  m  paren- 
chyma; ep  inner  epidermis. 

X  1 60.       (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  209.  Soudan  Cof- 
fee. Tissues  of  cot- 
yledon.  X  160. 

(MOELLER.) 


(Parkia  Ajricana) . 
Spermoderm  in  cross 
section,  p  palisade  cells; 
5  hour-glass  cells  (sub- 
epidermal  layer);  m 
parenchyma.  Xi6o. 
(MOELLER.) 

including  a  substitute  for  coffee.     P.  Roxburgh  Don.  is  said  to  be  a 
valuable  food  plant  in  the  Indian  Archipelago. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  207).  The  intercellular  substance  of  the  Palisade 
Layer  is  dissolved  by  soaking  in  water  and  the  cells  (150  //  high  and  15  /c 
broad)  are  liberated.  After  this  treatment  the  isolated  cells  are  char- 
acterized by  their  blunt,  spindle-shaped  form  (Fig.  208,  C). 


258  LEGUMES. 

Both  the  Column  Cells  and  the  Spongy  Parenchyma  have  thick  walls. 
The  Embryo  (Fig.  209)  is  thin-walled  and  contains  protoplasm  and 
fat,  but  no  starch. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Examined  in  water  the  blunt  spindle-shaped  palisade  cells  (Fig.  208, 
C),  the  thick-walled  column  cells  and  spongy  parenchyma  (m),  and  the 
thin -walled  cells  (Fig.  209)  of  the  starch-free  embryo,  are  the  important 
features. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674-.  Moeller  (29). 

JACK    BEAN. 

Several  tropical  and  subtropical  species  of  Canavalia  yield  edible  seeds, 
the  most  important  being  C.  ensijormis  DC.  and  C.  obtusi  folia  DC.  Both 
are  used  as  coffee  substitutes. 

The  Jack  bean  or  Chickasaw  Lima  (C.  ensijormis}  is  grown  to  some 
extent  in  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States  both  for  human  food  and 
feeding  stock. 

The  ovoid  beans  (15  mm.  long)  are  white  with  a  red  eye  about  the 
long  (5-7  mm.)  hilum. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm.  i.  The  Palisade  Cells  are  nearly  colorless,  125-150  /* 
high  and  10-22  JJL  wide.  Their  great  height  distin- 
guishes them  from  the  palisade  cells  of  species  of 
Phaseolus.  The  thin  cuticle  when  separated  bears  the 
impressions  of  the  cells  beneath  (Fig.  210). 

2.  The  Column  Cells  (Fig.  211)  over  the  body  of  the 
seed  are  in  four  or  more  layers  and  beneath  the  hilum 
form  a  spongy  mass  upwards  of  2  mm.  thick.  Those 
in  the  first  layer  are  25-45  /*  high  and  25-60  «  broad. 
In  the  inner  layers  one  finds  all  transitions  from  typical 

.  210.   Jack  Bean 

(Canavalia    ensi-    hour-glass   cells,   to   fantastic   compound   or  branching 

formis).       Cuticle     r  i  •       -r^-  i    r       -i- 

with  imprint  of    f°rms  such  as  are  shown  in   Fig.    211,   and  finally  to 
palisade   cells,    parenchyma.      Brown  contents  are  present  in  the  cells 

(MOELLER.) 

beneath  the  hilum. 

3.  Parenchyma.   .This  layer  presents  no  remarkable  features. 
Embryo  (Fig.  212).     The  moderately  thick- walled,  porous  cells  of  the 


JACK  BEAN.     FENUGREEK. 


259 


4 

cotyledons,  containing   ellipsoidal   starch   grains  up   to    50  /i,  recall   the 
corresponding  tissue  of  the  common  bean. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Identification,  whether  in  coffee  or  other  food  products,  is  not  usually 
difficult,  owing  to  the  great  height  of  the  palisade  cells  and  the  several 

I 


FIG.  2  n.     Jack  Bean.     Subepidermal  cells 
of  spermoderm.     >^i6o.     (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  212.  Jack  Bean.  Cotyledon  tissue 
showing  i  intercellular  spaces  and  /  sec- 
tion of  cell  arm.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 


layers  of  column  cells    (Fig.' 211).     The  starch   (Fig.  212)   is  of  much 
the  same  size  and  form  as  that  of  the  common  bean. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Moeller  (29). 

FENUGREEK. 

Seeds  of  fenugreek  (Trigonella  Foenum-Graecum  L.),  remarkable  alike 
for  their  curious  shape,  aromatic  odor,  and  anatomical  structure,  have 
been  employed  as  a  drug  both  in  human  and  veterinary  practice  for  many 
centuries,  especially  in  India,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  the  Barbary  States, 
and  Southern  Europe.  They  are  also  used  as  food  by  the  women  of 
Northern  Africa  to  give  plumpness  to  their  forms. 

The  outline  of  the  slightly  flattened,  brown  seed  is  quadrilateral, 
and  the  form  of  both  the  cotyledons  and  radicle  is  clearly  evident  on 
the  exterior  (Fig.  213).  The  radicle  is  bent  parallel  to  the  cotyledons 
and  the  longer  axis  of  the  seed  (Fig.  214).  Under  a  lens,  the  hilum  is 
seen  to  be  situated  near*  the  apex  of  the  radicle. 


260 


LEGUMES. 
HISTOLOGY. 


Cross-sections,  cut  after  soaking  the  seed  in  water,  show  a  spermo- 
derm,  a  well-developed  endosperm,  and  an  embryo,  both  the  latter  being 
free  from  starch. 


FIG.    213.     Fenugreek  (Trigonella  Foenum-Graecum}. 
a     seed,       natural      size;       the     others     enlarged. 

(NOBBE.) 


FIG.   214.  Fenugreek.    Seed   with 

*  spermoderm  partially  removed 

showing  cotyledon  and  radicle. 

(MOELLER.) 


The  Spermoderm  (Fig.  216,  S\  Fig.  215)  has  the   three  layers   of   a 
typical  legume. 


cut 


FIG.  215.  Fenugreek.  Elements  of  seed  in  surface  view,  cut  cuticle  and  blunt  palisade 
cells;  pal  pointed  palisade  cells;  sub  subepidermal  cells  and  parenchyma;  a  aleurone 
cells  of  endosperm.  (TSCHIRCH.) 


i.  The  Palisade  Cells    (Figs.  215  and  216,  pal),   60-75  <«  high 
8-20  n  broad,  have  narrow  cavities  in  the  outer,  broad  cavities  in  the 


FENUGREEK. 


261 


cut- 

1 

pal 


inner  portions.  On  the  outer  surface  the  side  walls  are  continued  into 
pointed  or,  less  often,  blunt  ends  8-20  fj.  long,  projecting  into  an  outer 
mucilaginous  coat,  the  latter  being  indistinct  in  water  and  entirely  in- 
visible on  the  addition  of  alkali.  The  cells  with  blunt  ends  are  higher 
than  the  pointed  cells.  A  narrow  ligh't 
line  3-6  /JL  is  situated  25-35  p  from 
the  outer  ends  of  trie  cells.  ^ 

2.  The  Column  Cells  (Figs.  215  and      sub  - 
216,  sub),  although  but  15-20  /*  high,         p.. 
are  quite  as  remarkable  as  the  palisade         a 
cells.     They  are  hour-glass-shaped,  but 

the  inner  end  is  much  broader  than 
the  outer.  Particularly  striking  are  the 
ribs,  which  may  be  seen  either  in  cross 
section  or  in  surface  view,  in  the  latter 
case  presenting  a  beautiful  radiating 
effect.  Their  great  breadth,  30-75  /*,  is  muc  " 
a  notable  feature. 

3.  Parenchyma    (Fig.    216,    p)  with 
wavy  walls  and  occasional  intercellular 
spaces  completes  the  spermoderm. 

An  Endosperm  (Fig.  216,  E),  glassy 
when  dry,  mucilaginous  when  wet, 
makes  up  nearly  half  the  volume  of 
the  seed. 

1.  Aleurone    Cells    (Figs.    21=5    and   . 

FIG.  216. 

216,  a).  A  single  layer  of  cells  (15-45 
fi)  containing  small  aleurone  grains 
envelops  the  embryo,  and  extends  also 
between  the  cotyledons  and  the  radicle. 

2.  Mucilage  Cells  (muc).     Tschirch 
has   shown   that   each   cell  has  a  very 

thick  mucilaginous  inner  membrane,  which  is  evident  on  adding 
glycerine  slowly  to  a  water  preparation.  In  sections  mounted  in  water 
only  the  thin  primary  membrane  is  evident.  The  cells  appear  to  be 
empty. 

Embryo  (C).  The  hard  yellow  cotyledons  and  radicle  contain  aleurone 
grains  (al)  but  no  starch.  Usually  three  layers  of  palisade  cells  underlie 
the  inner  epidermis. 


ept 


al<  i  (f  ,ic,o         yc 


ep 


Fenugreek.  Seed  in  cross 
section.  5  spermoderm  consists  of 
pal  palisade  cells  with  cut  cuticle  and 
/  light  line,  sub  subepidermal  layer, 
and  p  parenchyma;  E  endosperm  con- 
sists of  a  aleurone  cells  and  muc  mu- 
cilage cells;  C  cotyledon,  with  epl  and 
cp2  epidermal  layers  and  al  aleurone 
cells.  Xi6o.  (WINTON.) 


262  LEGUMES. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Fenugreek  is  a  common  ingredient  of  condimental  cattle  foods  and 
condition  powders,  where  it  is  recognized  by  its  characteristic  taste  and 
odor. 

The  high,  pointed  palisade  cells  (Figs.  215  and  216,  pal)  with 
mucilaginous  outer  membranes  (cut),  the  ribbed  column  cells  (sub), 
and  the  aleurone  cells  (a)  are  all  easily  found  in  fragments  of  the  hull. 
Starch  is  absent  throughout. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Harz  (18);  Hassall  (19);  Meyer,  A.  (27); 
Moeller  (31);   Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Tschirch  (39);   Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40). 
GODFRIN:    Etude    histologique  sur  les  tegument  seminaux  des  Angiospermes.     Soc. 

d.  Sci.  d.  Nancy.  1880,  109. 
DE  LANESSAN:  Sur  la  structure  des  graines  du  Trigonella  Foenum  Graecum  et  la  pre'- 

sence  d'un  albumen  dans  ces  graines.     Bull,  de  la  soc.  Linn,  de  Paris  seance  du  4 

juillet  1877,  134. 
SEMPOLOWSKI:     Ueber  den  Bau  des    Schale    landwirthschaftlich    wichtiger    Samen. 

Landw.  Jahrb.  1874,  3,  823. 

COFFEE  CASSIA. 

Seeds  of  coffee  cassia  or  Mogdad -coffee  (Cassia  occidentalis  L.)  are 
raised  in  parts  of  Africa,  the  East  and  West  Indies,  and  other  tropical 
regions  as  a  substitute  for  coffee. 

Although  a  legume,  the  seed  in  external  "appearance  does  not  resemble 
at  all  those  of  any  other  common  member  of  the  family.  It  is  flattened 
obovoid,  4-6  mm.  long,  3-4  mm.  broad,  its  shape  reminding  one  of  the 
sesame  seed.  Its  color  is  dark  gray.  An  elliptical  spot  on  the  middle  of 
each  flattened  side  is  dull  and  lusterless;  the  remainder  of  the  surface, 
however,  is  lustrous,  owing  to  an  enamel-like  coating,  which  readily 
flakes  off  from  the  dry  seed.  The  embryo,  consisting  of  two  thin  but 
broad  heart-shaped  cotyledons  and  a  short,  straight  radicle,  is  em- 
bedded in  a  horny  endosperm. 

HISTOLOGY. 

After  soaking  in  water  for  24  hours,  the  outer  coats  form  a  slimy 
mass,  which  can  be  separated  for  study  in  surface  view.  The  soaked 
seed  also  serves  for  cutting  sections  of  the  endosperm  and  embryo,  but 
the  dry  or  partially  swollen  seed  is  better  suited  for  sections  of  the  outer 
coats. 


COFFEE  CASSIA. 


263 


The  Spermoderm  (Fig.  217)  is  closely  united  with  the  endosperm. 

i.  Palisade  Cells  (p).  These  are  60-75  /*  high  and  3-7  /*  broad, 
the  breadth  being  less  than  in  most  members  of  the  family.  A  striking 
characteristic  is  the  cuticular  membrane,  which  is  not  a  cuticle  proper, 
but  is  made  up  of  the  metamorphosed  outer  portions  of  the  palisade  cells. 
Cross  sections  show  that  in  the  elliptical  spots  already  mentioned  this 
cuticular  membrane  is  30-35  /*  thick,  or  nearly  half  the  height  of  the 
cells,  though  in  other  parts  it  is  only  about  1 2  /£.  That  it  is  derived  from 
the  cells  proper  is  indicated  by  the  faint  markings  perpendicular  to  the 


FIG.  217.  Coffee  Cassia  (C issia  occiden- 
talis).  Elements  of  spermoderm.  p  pali- 
sade cells  in  surface  view;  c  isolated 
cells;  cp  cuticular  plates;  s  subepidermal 
cells.  (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  218.      Coffee  Cassia.      Cells  of  endo- 
sperm   with     brown     contents.       Xi6o. 

(MOELLER.) 


surface,  which  correspond  to  the  radial  walls  of  the  inner  portion  of 
the  layer.  These  are  more  distinct  in  the  broader  portion  of  the 
membrane.  The  enamel -like  scales  (cp)  which  separate  from  the  dry 
seed  consist  of  this  membrane,  although  over  the  spots  the  fusion  is 
more  complete  and  no  such  separation  takes  place.  The  light  line  is 
confined  entirely  to  the  inner  portion  of  the  layer,  being  most  distinct 
beneath  the  thick  portion  of  the  cuticular  membrane.  About  two-thirds 
of  the  distance  from  the  line  of  separation  of  the  cuticular  membrane  to 
the  inner  surface  of  the  layer  there  is  noticeable  a  line  of  demarcation, 
caused  by  the  presence  of  dark  contents  in  the  cell  cavities,  which  are 
there  somewhat  inflated.  In  surface  view  the  membrane  displays  peculiar 
zigzag  walls.  Moeller  was  the  first  to  call  attention  to  the  disintegra- 
tion of  the  palisade  cells  through  swelling,  which  takes  place  after  soaking 
for  a  day  or  two  in  water.  The  cuticular  membrane  is  not  affected  by 


264  LEGUMES. 

this  treatment,  but  the  cells  proper  are  reduced  to  a  mass  of  hair-like 
bodies,  shown  in  Fig.  217,  c. 

2.  The  Column  Cells  (s)  are  16-25  /"  l°ng>  25~4°  /*  broad,  and  have 
somewhat  thickened  walls. 

3.  The  Parenchyma  Cells  are  also  thick- walled. 

Endosperm  (Fig.  218).  This  resembles  the  horny  endosperm  of  the 
carob  bean,  consisting  of  cells  with  enormously  swollen  walls  and  brown 
proteid  contents.  Cross  sections  are  elliptical,  bisected  by  the  narrow, 
band-like  sections  of  the  cotyledons. 

Embryo.  The  thin  cotyledons  have  two  rows  of  palisade  cells  on 
the  inner  surface.  They  contain  proteids  and  fat. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

This  seed  is  one  of  the  few  belonging  to  the  legume  family  that  con- 
tains no  starch.  The  cuticular  membrane  is  alike  characteristic  both 
in  section  and  surface  view.  It  is  thickest  on  the  elliptical  spots.  The 
small  breadth  of  the  palisade  cells,  their  length,  and  the  horny  character 
of  the  endosperm,  further  aid  in,  identification.  If  time  permits,  the 
effect  of  soaking  the  material  for  a  day  or  two  in  water  should  be  noted. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (10);  Moeller  (29);  Vogl 

(45)- 

MOELLER:  Ueber  Cassia-Samen.     Bot.  Ztg.  1880,  38,  737. 

ASTRAGALUS, 

The  coffee  astragalus  (Astragalus  baeticus  L.)  is  found  wild  in  Spain 
and  Portugal,  and  is  cultivated  in  other  parts  of  Europe  for  its  seeds, 
which,  after  roasting,  are  said  to  have  a  true  coffee  flavor.  "Swedish 
Continental  Coffee,"  a  popular  substitute  for  coffee,  is  a  preparation  of 
this  seed. 

The  seeds  resemble  fenugreek  in  color,  shape,  and  size.  They  are 
brown,  more  or  less  rhombohedral  with  flattened  ends,  and  are  upward 
of  5  mm.  long  and  about  two-thirds  as  broad.  The  position  of  the  radicle 
is  distinctly  marked  on  the  surface. 

HISTOLOGY. 

In  anatomical  structure  also,  the  seeds  of  astragalus  and  fenugreek 
are  very  similar,  the  chief  difference  being  in  the  size  and  structure  of  the 
palisade  cells. 


ASTRAGALUS.      LUCERNE. 


265 


Spermoderm  (Fig.  219).  i.  The  Palisade  Cells  (p}  are  colorless, 
125-150  p  high,  and  12-20  a  broad.  They  are  somewhat  geniculate 
like  the  palisade  cells  of  the  lupine.  Although  there  is  no  distinct  line  of 
demarcation,  the  cavity  in  the  inner 
portion  is  broader  and  more  irregu- 
lar than  in  the  outer. 

2.  Column  Cells  (t).     These  are 
hour-glass-shaped,    16-40    a    high, 

and  35-75  p  broad.     Distinct  ribs     <*0BgM8&m'GKW&~  t 
are   conspicuous  both  in  cross  sec- 
tion and  surface  view. 

3.  Parenchyma.      This   layer  is 

much  compressed  and  presents  no    FIG.  219.    Astragalus  (A.  baeticus}.    Surface 
interesting  features.  ™£  ^^^^^MOELLER")  * subepidermal 

Endosperm.      i.    An    Aleurone 

Layer  of  more  or  less  rectangular  cells  25-50  fi  broad   forms  the  outer 
coat. 

2.  Mucilage  Cells  much  like  those  of  fenugreek  constitute  the  horny 
inner  portion  of  the  endosperm.  Viewed  in  water,  only  the  faint  outline 
of  the  cells  is  visible. 

Embryo.  Proteid  matter  and  fat  form  the  reserve  material.  Starch 
is  not  present.  The  cells  of  the  cotyledons  are  thronghout  thin-walled 
and  somewhat  elongated,  those  in  the  inner  layers  being  pronounced 
palisade  cells. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

All  the  tissues  are  practically  the  same  as  in  fenugreek,  except  the 
palisade  cells,  which  are  fully  twice  as  high  and  are  neither  swollen  nor 
pointed  at  the  outer  extremities.  These  cells  are  geniculate  and  nearly 
colorless..  In  surface  view  the  ribbed  column  cells  (Fig.  219,  /)  remind 
one  of  sunbursts,  but  this  appearance  is  common  to  fenugreek,  alfalfa, 
and  some  other  leguminons  seeds.  Starch  is  absent. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (10);  Harz  (18);  Moeller 
(29). 

LUCERNE. 

Although  grown  only  as  a  forage  crop,  the  seeds  of  lucerne  or  alfalfa 
(Medico go  saliva  L.)  occur  as  an  impurity  in  wheat,  when  this  crop  fol- 
lows alfalfa  in  rotation. 


266 


LEGUMES. 


The  curious  spiral  pod  contains  small  seeds  2-3  mm.  long,  with  a  promi- 
nent ridge  over  the  radicle  (Fig.  220). 

HISTOLOGY. 

In  microscopic  as  well  as  macroscopic  structure,  the  seed  corresponds 

closely  with  fenugreek,  except  that  the 
dimensions  of  the  parts  are  much 
smaller. 

Spermoderm.  The  palisade  cells, 
with  pointed  and  mucilaginous  outer 
membranes,  are  30-40  /*  high  and 
9-15  /*  broad;  the  ribbed  column 
cells  are  10-15  /*  high  and  15-45  /* 
broad. 

The  Endosperm  of  aleurone  and 
mucilage  cells,  and  the  embryo  con- 
taining aleurone  grains  but  no  starch, 

FIG.    220.      Lucerne     (Medicago     saliva}.  ,.,        ,  ,. 

Seeds,    natural     size     and     enlarged,    are  very  like  the  corresponding  parts 


(NOBBE.) 


of  fenugreek. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Harz  (18). 

PEANUT. 

Formerly  the  peanut  (Arachis  hypogaea  L.)  was  thought  to  be  a  native 
of  the  Old  World, but  more  recent  investigations  indicate  that  it  is  a  Brazil- 
ian plant  which  was  introduced  into  other  regions  in  early  colonial  times. 

At  the  present  time,  peanuts  are  grown  in  Africa,  Southern  Europe, 
India,  China,  Japan,  and  the  Islands  of  the  Pacific,  largely  for  the  pro- 
duction of  oil  and  oil  cake,  the  latter  serving  as  food  for  man  and  cattle, 
and  in  the  United  States  for  consumption  as  roasted  peanuts  and  in  peanut 
confectionery.  Peanut  hay,  consisting  of  the  stalks,  leaves,  and  immature 
pods  is  utilized  as  a  cattle  food.  About  4,000,000  bushels  of  peanuts 
are  annually  consumed  in  the  United  States,  the  larger  part  being  roasted 
and  sold  on  the  street.1 

The  African  variety,  grown  not  only  in  Africa,  but  also  in  India  and 
other  parts  of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  as  well  as  in  North  Carolina,  yields 


1  Handy:    U.  S.  Dcpt.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  25 


PEANUT.  267 

a  small  pod  with  seeds  rich  in  oil.  A  variety  with  larger  pods  (often  4-5  cm. 
long),  but  less  oily  seeds,  is  extensively  grown  in  Virginia,  yielding  the 
nuts  commonly  roasted  by  venders.  Tennessee  produces  two  varieties, 
the  white  and  the  red.  A  small  podded  variety  is  grown  in  Spain  partly 
for  the  production  of  oil,  and  partly  for  the  cake  which,  mixed  with  choco- 
late and  spices,  is  a  common  food  for  the  lower  classes.  The  Spanish 
peanut  is  also  cultivated  to  a  limited  extent  in  America. 

Peanuts  of  the  varieties  named  usually  contain  two  seeds,  less  often 
one,  rarely  three.     Costa  Rica  produces  a  variety  with  long  pods  containing 


)    FIG.  221      Peanut  (Arachis  liy-  FIG.  222.     Peanut.     Cross  section  of  fruit,     w  meso- 

pogaea) .     Fruit,  natural  size.  carp,  /  fiber  layer  and  p  parenchyma,  of  the  pericarp ; 

g  fibro-vascular  bundle;  S  spermoderm;    C  coty- 
ledon.      X4.      (WlNTON.) 

four  to  five  seeds.     A  variety  grown  in  Argentine  Republic  has  pods  of  a 
deep  orange  color. 

The  peanut  belongs  to  a  small  group  of  legumes  which  ripen  their 
fruit  below  ground.  Shortly  after  blooming  the  flower  stalks  bend  down- 
ward until  the  young  fruit  is  completely  buried  in  the  soil.  If  for  any 
reason  this  does  not  occur  the  fruit  fails  to  ripen. 

The  dry  pod,  or  pericarp,  is  brittle  and  easily  broken  with  the  fingers. 
Ten  or  more  longitudinal  ridges  with  anastomosing  branches  form  more 
or  less  distinct  reticulations  on  the  outer  surface  (Fig.  221).  Beneath 
the  surface  is  a  spongy  tissue,  further  inward  a  thin  but  hard  woody  coat 
(Fig.  222,  /),  and  still  further  inward,  forming  the  lining  of  the  pod,  a 
papery  tissue  (p)  with  a  silky  luster.  In  the  early  stages  of  ripening  the 
seeds  completely  fill  the  pod,  and  as  a  result  of  this  crowding  the  adjacent 
surfaces  are  flattened  in  a  diagonal  plane.  This  flattened  surface  is  at 
the  hilum  end  of  the  upper  seed,  at  the  chalaza  end  of  the  lower  seed.  When 
|  ripe  the  seeds  only  partly  fill  the  cavity.  The  united  spermoderm  and 
j  perisperm  form  a  thin  skin,  red  or  brown  on  the  outer,  colorless  or  yellow 


268  LEGUMES. 

on  the  inner  surface,  on  which  are  veins  formed  by  the  raphe  and  the 
five  branches  radiating  from  it  at  the  chalaza. 

The  elongated  cotyledons  (Fig.  222,  C)  are  longitudinally  grooved 
on  the  inner  surface. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  Pericarp  (Figs.  223  and  224),  or  shell,  while  morphologically 
corresponding  with  the  pod  of  other  legumes,  exhibits  some  remarkable 
peculiarities  traceable  partly  at  least  to  the  conditions  encountered  while 
ripening  in  the  soil.  Not  only  is  it  deprived  of  all  chlorophyl  and  con- 


Pericarp  in  cross  section,  ep  epicarp  with  h  hair;  hy  hypoderm; 
mes  mesocarp;  qf  transversely  elongated  fibers;  //  longitudinally  elongated  fibers; 
p  parenchyma;  b  bast  fibers,  ph  phloem  and  &y  xylem,  of  a  fibro-vascular  bundle.  XSo. 

(WlNTON.) 

sequently  of  the  photosynthetic  power  of  the  leaf,  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  provided  with  root  hairs,  and  presumably  possesses  to  some  degree 
the  absorptive  function  of  a  true  root.  In  other  words,  the  pericarp, 
although  morphologically  a  leaf,  acts  physiologically  as  a  root. 

1.  The  Epicarp  Cells  (ep)  have  such  thin  walls  that  they  are  seen 
with  difficulty  in  surface  view7.      In  cross  section,  especially  after  stain- 
ing with  safranin,  the  presence  of  typical  root  hairs,  arising  from  the- 
center  of  many  of  the  epidermal  cells,  is  evident.     These  hairs  are  not 
usually  present  on  the  peanuts  sold  by  venders,  due  probably  to  their 
removal  by  cleaning  or  by  friction  of  one  against  the  other  in  the  bags. 

2.  Hypoderm  (hy).     The  cells  of  one  or  more  layers  beneath  the  epi- 
dermis have   thin   non-porous  walls,   but  further  inward  the  walls  are 


PEANUT.  269 

thick  and  conspicuously  porous.     Owing  to  these  pores  as  well  as  their 
quadrilateral  shape  the  cells  are   readily   identified  in  powdered  shells. 

3.  The  Mesocarp  (mes):or  more  properly  the  outer  parenchyma  layer, 
consists  of  thin-walled  cells  which  become  obliterated  to  a  large  extent 
on  ripening.     Over  the  bundles  this  layer  is  thin  or  lacking. 

4.  Fiber  Layer  (Fig.  223,  qj,  If;  Fig.  224,  /,  z,  g,  h,  k,  /).     A  thin  but 


FIG.  224.     Peanut.     Isolated  elements  of  the  pericarp,     a  and  b  cells  of  the  hypoderm; 
/,  z,  k,  h,  t,  d  and  g  cells  of  the  fiber  layer.      X  160.     (WiNTON.) 

hard  coat  of  fibers  extended  in  different  tangential  directions  gives  rigidity 
to  the  pericarp.  Many  of  these  fibers  bear  rows  of  saw-teeth  (z),  be- 
tween which  lie  the  crossing  fibers  of  an  adjacent  layer.  At  the  end  they 
are  often  branched,  giving  rise  to  halberd-shaped  (h)  and  other  curious 
forms.  Many  other  remarkable  cells  varying  greatly  in  size,  form  and 
wall  thickness  occur  in  this  layer. 

The  ridges  forming  the  reticulations  of  the  nut  are  but  channeled 
outgrowths  of  this  layer,  formed  by  remarkable  T-  (/)  and  L-shaped 
fibers.  Often  in  partially  macerated  specimens  one  finds  a  series  of 


270 


LEGUMES. 


these  angled  fibers,  part  of  each  belonging  to  the  fiber-layer  proper,  the 
remainder   to  a  ridge. 

In  the  channels  of  these  outgrowths  run  the  fibre-vascular  bundles 
with  well-marked  bast  fibers  (b),  phloem  (ph),  and  xylem  (xy). 

5.  Inner  Parenchyma  (p).  Cross  sections  of  partly  ripe  seeds  show 
a  thick  inner  layer  of  pith-like  cells,  with  triangular  intercellular  spaces 
at  the  .corners.  At  full  maturity,  especially  after  drying  the  seeds,  the 
compressed  cells  of  this  layer  form  the  papery  lining  of  the  shell. 

gr 
aep 


FIG.  225.  Peanut.  Seed  in  cross  section.  S  spermoderm  consists  of  aep  outer  epidermis, 
pl  parenchyma,  p2  and  p3  spongy  parenchyma,  and  iep  inner  epidermis;  g  fibre-vascular 
bundle;  N  perisperm;  C  cotyledon  consists  of  ep  epidermis  with  sto  stoma  and  the 
porous  parenchyma  cells  containing  st  starch  grains  and  al  aleurone  grains.  Xi6o. 

(WlNTON.) 

The  Spermoderm  (Fig.  225,  5;  Fig.  226)  and  perisperm  form  a  thin 
dry  skin  which  may  be  readily  separated  and  sectioned  either  dry  in  paraf- 
fine,  or  wet  between  pieces  of  pith.  As  recommended  by  T.  F.  Hanau- 
sek,  sections  should  be  treated  either  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  alkali, 
or  with  Javelle  water,  in  order  to  make  the  inner  epidermis  of  the  sper- 
moderm evident. 

i.  The  Outer  Epidermis  (aep)  corresponds  with  the  palisade  layer 
of  other  legumes,  although  the  two  appear  at  first  sight  to  have  nothing 
in  common.  The  cells  are  15-25  /*  high  and  25-50;*  broad.  Cross 
sections  show  that  the  inner  walls  are  thin  but  that  the  radial  walls 
increase  in  thickness  from  within  outward,  and  as  a  consequence  the 
cavities  are  more  or  less  triangular  in  shape. 


PEANUT. 


271 


Radially  elongated  pores  pierce  the  thickened  portion  of  the  walls, 
forming  ribs.  Examined  in  surface  view  the  sharply  polygonal  cells 
with  thickened  and  porous  radial  walls  present  a  characteristic  appear- 
ance. 

When  it  is  considered  that  the  palisade  cells  of  nearly  all  legumes  are 
polygonal  in  surface  view  and  have  ribbed  radial  walls,  increasing  in 
thickness  from  within  outward,  it  is  evident  that  these  cells  differ  from 


FIG.  226.  Peanut.  Elements  of  the  seed  in  surface  view,  aep  outer  epidermis  of  spermo- 
derm;  pl  parenchyma;  p2  and  p3  spongy  parenchyma;  g  bundle;  iep  inner  epidermis 
of  spermoderm;  TV  perisperm;  ep  epidermis  of  cotyledon  with  sto  stoma.  Xi6o. 

(WlNTON.) 

the  type  merely  in  that  they  are  broader,  higher,  and  have  a  broader 
lumen. 

2.  Subepidermal  Layer  (p1).     Column  cells  such  as  characterize  other 
legumes  are  not  present,  the  layer  being  of  thin-walled  parenchyma  cells 
without  intercellular  spaces. 

3.  Parenchyma.     The   character   of   the   cells   varies   from   ordinary 
parenchyma  (p1)  in  the  outer  layers  to  spongy  parenchyma  with  moderate- 
sized  intercellular  spaces  in  the  middle  layers  (p2)  and  then  to  a  very 
striking   spongy    parenchyma,  with    narrow    branching    cells    and    rela- 
tively large  intercellular  spaces  in  the  inner  layers   (p3).     These  latter 
aid   in   identification.     Strongly   developed    vascular   elements   occur   in 
the  raphe  bundles  and  its  branches. 

4.  Inner  Epidermis  (iep).    Treatment  of  sections  with  Javelle  water 
brings    into    evidence  the    inner    epidermis.      In    surface    preparations 
treated  in  the  same  manner,  and  stained  with    safranin,  the  cells  are 
quadrilateral,  usually  elongated,  with  often  marked  evidence  of  division 
and  subdivision  of  the  mother  cells. 


272  LEGUMES. 

Perisperm  (Figs.  225  and  226,  N).  A  single  layer  of  moderately 
thick- walled  cells  with  somewhat  wavy  contour  forms  the  inner  coat  of 
the  skin.  The  contents,  according  to  T.  F.  Hanausek,  are  granules 
consisting  sometimes  of  corroded  crystals. 

The  Embryo  (C)  comprises  two  large  cotyledons  and  a  relatively 
small  radicle. 

1.  The  Epidermal  Cells   (ep)  of  the  cotyledons  are  characterized  by 
their  elongated  form  and  thick  outer  walls.     Small  aleurone  grains  are 
present   in   all   the  cells,   and  starch  grains  of  small   size,  according  to 
Hanausek,  only  in  the  guard  cells  of  the  stomata   (st). 

2.  Mesophyl.     Cells  of    large    size    containing  aleurone  grains    (al), 
starch  grains  (st),  and  fat  make  up  the  larger  part  of  the  cotyledons. 
Their  double  walls,  pierced  by  large  pores,  range  up  to  6  /^  in  thickness, 
being  separated  at  the  angles  to  form  small  intercellular  spaces.     The 
starch  grains  (up  to  15  p)  are  globular  and  have  a  central  hilum.     The 
aleurone  grains  vary  greatly  in  shape  and  size,  some  of  them  being  about 
the  size  of  the  largest  starch  grains,  most  of  them,  however,  only  half 
or  a  third  as  large.     Several  globoids  are  present  in  the  largest  grains. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Peanut  shells  (pericarp)  are  a  normal  constituent  of  peanut  cake 
made  from  unhulled  peanuts  and  of  cattle  food  made  from  damaged  or 
immature  fruits.  They  are  identified  by  the  pitted,  more  or  less  quadri- 
lateral hypoderm  cells  (Fig.  224,  a,  b)  and  the  various  elements  of  the 
fiber  layer,  particularly  the  L-  and  T-shaped  (/),  toothed  (z)  and  halberd- 
shaped  (h)  forms.  The  root  hairs  of  the  epidermis  are  difficult  to  find 
and  the  compressed  .parenchyma  cells  are  not  characteristic. 

Products  containing  the  seed  include  peanut  cake,  peanut  confectionery, 
peanut  butter  (a  paste  prepared  from  the  seed  after  removal  of  the  pericarp 
and  spermoderm),  and  the  mixtures  of  chocolate  and  peanut  cake  prepared 
in  Spain  and  possibly  in  other  countries.  The  products  contain  not 
only  the  starch  (Fig.  225,  st),  fat  and  proteids  of  the  seed,  but  also  in 
greater  or  less  amount  the  tissues  of  the  spermoderm  (Fig.  226),  of 
which  the  porous,  sharply  polygonal  cells  of  the  outer  epidermis  (aep), 
and  the  spongy  parenchyma  cells,  often  with  narrow  arms  (p3),  are  most 
useful  in  diagnosis.  Fragments  of  the  spermoderm,  brown  or  red  on  the 
outer,  yellow  on  the  inner  surface,  can  often  be  picked  out  under  the 
single  microscope. 


TONKA  BEAN.  273 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Benecke  (2);  Bohmer  (10);    Hanausek, 
T.  F.  (48);   Harz  (18);   Moeller  (29);   Vogl  (45). 
BILTERYST:  Recherche  de  1'arachide  et  de  son  tourteau  dans  le  chocolat.     Jour,  pharm. 

chim.  1897,  6,  29. 

KOBUS:  Kraftfutter  und  seiner  Verfalschung.     Landw.  Jahrb.  1884,  13,  813. 
UHLITZSCH:  Riickstande  der  Erdnussolfabrikation.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1892,  41,  385. 
WINTON:  The  Anatomy  of  the  Peanut  with  Special  Reference  to  its  Microscopic  Identifi- 
cation in  Food  Products.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1904,  191. 

TONKA  BEAN. 

South  America  produces  the  larger  part  of  the  Tonka  or  Tonquin 
beans  of  commerce,  the  chief  ports  of  shipment  being  Angostura  in  Vene- 
zuela, Surinam  in  Guiana,  and  Para  in  Brazil. 

The  true  Tonka  bean  is  the  seed  of  Coumarouna  odorata  Aubl.  (Dip- 
teryx  odorata  Willd.),  but  less  important  commercial  sorts  are  the  products 
of  other  species  of  the  same  genus  (C.  oppositijolia  (Aubl.)  Taub.,  etc.). 
They  are  used  in  perfumery,  flavoring  extracts,  and  medicines. 

As  seen  in  the  market,  the  black  seeds  vary  from  25-50  mm.  in  length 
and  from  10-20  mm.  in  breadth,  measured  across  the  flattened  sides  at  the 
broadest  part.  One  edge  of  the  seed  is  sharp,  the  other  blunt,  the  hilum 
being  situated  on  the  blunt  edge  near  one  end.  The  surface  is  wrinkled 
and  often  covered  with  white  crystals  of  coumarin,  the  flavoring  principle 
of  this  seed  as  well  as  of  the  leaves  of  sweet  clover  (Melilotus  officinalis), 
sweet  vernal  grass  (Anthoxanthum  odoratum),  and  the  sweet  woodruff 
(Asperula  odorata).  Two  large  cotyledons  with  a  small  radicle  at  the 
end  make  up  the  embryo. 

HISTOLOGY. 

T.  F.  Hanausek  has  called  attention  to  the  histological  structure  of 
this  seed,  which  shows  some  remarkable  variations  from  the  usual  legu- 
minous type. 

Spermoderm.  This,  together  with  the  perisperm  and  the  nearly 
obliterated  endosperm,  separates  from  the  embryo  as  a  thin,  brittle  shell. 

i.  The  Palisade  Cells  are  much  thinner- walled  than  in  ordinary 
legumes,  the  cavity  being  broader  than  the  double  walls  even  in  the  outer 
portion  where  the  walls  are  thickest.  A  nearly  black  substance  fills  the 
cavity.  Seen  in  cross  section,  these  cells  are  rectangular;  in  surface  view, 
polygonal.  The  outer  half  of  each  cell  is  thickened  by  ribs  arranged 
parallel  to  the  axis  and  separated  from  each  other  by  narrow  slits  or  pores. 
Focusing  on  this  outer  portion  of  the  cell,  the  thickened  walls  in  surface 


274  LEGUMES. 

view  appear  beaded.     The  cells  are  50-65  fi  high  and  16-25  V-  broad. 
After  maceration  in  alkali  their  characteristics  are  manifest. 

2.  The  Column  Cells  have  thickened  walls  and  are  not  in  close  contact. 
Although  hour-glass-shaped,  the  cells  are  often  curiously  distorted.     They 
are  15-24  JJL  high,  30-50  /j.  broad. 

3.  Spongy  Parenchyma  with  moderately  thick  walls  and  well  marked 
intercellular  spaces  forms  the  third  layer.     In  the  inner  layers  the  cells 
are  much  compressed. 

4.  An   Inner   Epidermis  or   pigment    layer   consists   of  transversely 
elongated    cells  with  dark  contents. 

Perisperm.  A  layer  of  aleurone  cells  is  classed  by  Hanausek  as  a 
nucellar  remnant  or  perisperm. 

Endosperm.  Within  the  aleurone  layer  is  a  hyaline  membrane  with 
indistinct  cellular  structure,  the  remains  of  the  endosperm. 

Embryo.  The  isodiametric  cells  of  the  cotyledons  contain  round 
starch  grains  (4-9  /*)  and  yellow,  irregularly  elongated  aleurone  grains  up 
to  35  jj.  long,  embedded  in  a  ground  substance  of  fat  and  proteid  material. 
As  the  aleurone  grains  are  insoluble  in  water,  both  these  and  the  starch 
grains  are  clearly  differentiated  by  extracting  sections  with  ether  and 
mounting  in  potassium  iodide  iodine.  Hanausek  found  that  if  the  section 
was  treated  with  alcohol  before  mounting  in  iodine  solution,  only  a  faint 
blue  color  appeared  in  the  starch  grains,  a  phenomenon  which  he  attributed 
to  the  formation  of  a  protective  coat  over  the  grains  preventing  the  entrance 

of  the  iodine. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Although  synthetic  coumarin  has,  to  a  large  degree,  replaced  Tonka 
beans,  the  latter  are  still  used  in  considerable  amount  in  perfumery, 
snuff,  and  flavoring  extracts.  As  vanilla  extract  is  often  mixed  with 
extract  of  the  Tonka  bean,  it  is  quite  possible  that  ground  vanilla  beans 
are  adulterated  with  ground  Tonka  beans. 

Coumarin  may  be  isolated  and  quantitatively  determined  by  chemical 
means;  but  the  microscope  must  be  depended  on  to  detect  ground 
Tonka  beans. 

The  palisade  cells  with  dark  contents,  characteristic  alike  in  section 
and  surface  view,  the  irregularly  shaped  column  cells  and  the  grains  of 
aleurone  and  starch  contained  in  the  cotyledons,  render  identification  a 
simple  matter. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (48);  Planchon  et  Collin 
(34);  Vogl  (44). 


CAROB  BEAN.  275 


CAROB   BEAN. 

The  nutritive  elements  of  the  carob  bean  (Ceratonia  Siliqua  L.)  reside 
chiefly  in  the  fleshy  pods,  which  contain  a  high  percentage  of  sugar. 
It  is  believed  that  the  husks  eaten  by  the  prodigal  son  were  the  pods  of 
this  bean,  then  as  now  a  common  swine  food;  also  that  the  locusts  and 
wild  honey  on  which  John  the  Baptist  subsisted  while  in  the  wilderness 
were  respectively  the  seeds  and  pods  of  this  same  bean,  hence  the  name 
St.  John's  bread. 

Throughout  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  the  carob 
tree  is  cultivated  and  the  pods  are  used  as  food  for  the  poorer  classes 
and  cattle,  also  for  the  preparation  of  drugs,  sirups,  alcoholic  liquors, 
etc.  In  Germany  they  are  eaten  by  children  as  confectionery. 

The  several-seeded  fruit  is  10-20  cm.  long,  2-3  cm.  broad,  5-10  mm. 
thick,  and  has  several  cells  with  a  coriaceous  lining  (endocarp),  each 
containing  a  flattened,  obovate  seed  8-10  mm.  long  of  a  dark  wine  color. 
On  either  side  of  the  furrowed  sutures  the  pods  are  swollen,  and  within 
each  of  the  four  swollen  portions  occurs  a  row  of  cavities,  which  are 
readily  seen  in  longitudinal  section. 

HISTOLOGY 

Pericarp  (Fig.  227).  Although  this  fruit  is  similar  in  structure  to 
other  legumes,  several  of  the  tissues  have  individual  characteristics  which 
allow  of  their  ready  identification. 

1.  Epidermis  (ep).     Of  the  several  layers  of  cells  with  dark-brown 
contents  which  together  form  the  leathery  outer  portion  of  the  pod,  the 
outermost  consists  of  polygonal  cells  (12-30  /*)  and  stomata,  with  cuticu- 
larized  outer  walls. 

2.  The  Hypodermal  Layer  (rp),  often  120  /j.  thick,  is  made  up  of 
6-10   layers   of   tabular   parenchyma   cells,  which,  in   surface   view,  are 
rounded.     They  are  filled  with  brown  contents  like  that  in  the  epicarp. 

3.  Fibro -vascular  Bundles.     The  bast  fibers  (b)  form    a  nearly  unin- 
terrupted layer.     They  are  accompanied  by  crystal-fibers  (&),  each  con- 
taining a  single  crystal,   and  stone  cells   (st).     Further  inward  are  the 
phloem  and  xylem,  the  latter  containing  only  a  few  vascular  elements. 

4.  Mesocarp    (me).     The    fruit-flesh   or  mesocarp  is  a  thick   tissue 
of    large,  thin -walled,   radially  elongated  parenchyma  cells,  containing 
sugar  and  large,  curiously   wrinkled,  reddish-brown  lumps    (2).     These 
lumps  are  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol,  acetic  acid,  and  dilute  sulphuric 


276 


LEGUMES. 


acid.  Chlorzinc  iodine  colors  them  yellow,  the  cell-walls  blue.  A 
highly  characteristic  reaction  is  the  colors  produced  by  caustic  soda 
or  potash.  If  the  alkali  is  cold  and  dilute,  the  color  changes  first  to 
green,  then  to  blue -gray.  Heating  produces  a  violet  color.  If,  however, 
the  alkali  is  strong  and  heat  is  cautiously  applied,  a  magnificent  deep 
blue  is  obtained  at  once.  This  color  is  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  ether, 

b 


ep 


rp 

i 


FlG.  227.  Carob  Bean  (Ceratonia  Siliqua).  Elements  of  pericarp  in  surface  view,  ep 
epicarp  with  s  stoma;  rp  brown  hypoderm;  b  bast  fibers;  me  mesocarp  with  z  wrinkled 
bodies.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 

but  slowly  changes  on  exposure  to  the  air  (more  quickly  with  hydro- 
chloric acid)  to  red -brown. 

5.  Inner  Fiber  Layer.     The   cavities   containing   the   seeds   have   a 
chartaceous   lining    or    "endocarp"    consisting    of    bast    fibers,    crystal 
fibers,  and  stone  cells,  much  like  those  occurring  in  the  fibro- vascular 
bundles  of  the  outer  pericarp,  also  of  an  inner  epidermis.     The  fibers 
in  this  layer  are  arranged  transversely,  in  other  words,  at  right  angles 
to  those  of  the  outer  pericarp. 

6.  The  Inner  Epidermis  or  Endocarp  proper  consists   of  a  single 
layer  of  small,  isodiametric  cells  (15-25  /j)  with  swollen  and  conspicu- 
ously beaded  walls. 

The  Spermoderm  is  closely  united  with  the  endosperm. 

1.  The  Palisade  Cells  examined  in  water  are  170-250^  high,  of  which 
35-50  /*  is  a  swollen  outer  layer  with  no  evident  lumens. 

2.  Column  Cells.     The  walls  of  the  hour-glass-shaped  column  cells 


CAROB  BEAN. 


277 


swell  greatly,  so  that  the  cavities  are  hardly  discernable.  Intercellular 
spaces  are,  however,  distinctly  evident.  The  layer  is  20-35  /*  thick. 

3.  Parenchyma.  The  walls  throughout  are  greatly  swollen.  In 
the  outer  and  middle  layers,  the  cells  are  large ;  in  the  inner  layers  small, 
and  in  addition  dark  colored. 

The  Endosperm  (Fig.  228)  is  green-white,  of  a  dense  horny  structure. 
In  the  middle  of  the  broad  side  of  the  seeds  it  is  2  mm.  thick,  but  dimin- 


FIG.  228.     Carob  Bean.     Endosperm  with  thickened  cell  walls.     (MOELLER.) 

. 

ishes  toward  the  edges,  where  it  is  almost  entirely  absent.  The  partitions 
between  the  cells  are  enormously  thickened,  owing  to  a  deposition  of 
a  carbohydrate  material  in  the  intercellular  spaces.  On  heating  with 
water  this  intercellular  substance  dissolves,  while  the  swollen  inner 
membrane  or  true  cell-wall  remains  intact.  Protein  and  fat  are  the 
only  visible  cell-contents. 

Embryo.  In  cross  section  the  embryo  appears  as  a  narrow,  yellow 
band  less  than  i  mm.  thick,  extending  along  the  entire  longer  axis  of  the 
ellipse  dividing  the  endosperm  into  two  semielliptical  halves. 

Three  inner  layers  of  palisade  cells  and  several  outer  layers  of  iso- 
diametric  cells  form  the  mesophyl.  The  contents  are  aleurone  grains 

and  fat. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Ground  carob  beans  are  used  as  a  cattle  food  and  a  coffee  substitute. 
The  brown,  wrinkled  bodies  (Fig.  227,  z)  of  the  mesocarp  are  identified 


278  LEGUMES. 

by  the  blue  color  produced  by  heating  with  5-10  per  cent  alkali.  The 
bast  fibers  (b)  and  other  elements  of  the  bundles,  also  the  cells  of  the 
epicarp  (ep)  and  hypoderm  (rp)  with  brown  contents,  are  readily  found, 
but  are  not  characteristic.  Of  the  seed  elements,  the  long  palisade  cells 
with  swollen  outer  walls,  and  especially  the  endosperm  cells  (Fig.  228), 
are  most  remarkable.  The  latter  are  best  identified  in  sections  cut  from 
the  white,  horny  fragments. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bell  (i);  Harz  (i8);Moeller  (29);  Vogl  (45). 
MARLIERE:    Sur  la  graine    et  specialement  sur Tendosperme  du  Ceratonia   Siliqua. 
La  Cellule,  1897,  13,  5. 


PART  V. 

NUTS. 


NUTS. 

PALM    FRUITS    (Palma). 

The  fruits  of  the  palms  are  either  fleshy  (e.g.  date)  or  dry  (e.  g.  cocoa- 
nut).  The  endocarp  of  certain  of  these  nuts  is  a  thick  layer  of  stone 
cells.  The  reserve  material  of  the  seed,  consisting  largely  of  fat  and 
proteid  (cocoanut,  palm  nut)  or  of  cellulose  in  the  form  of  thickened 
cell-walls  (date,  ivory  nut),  is  usually  stored  in  the  endosperm. 

COCOANUT. 

The  cocoanut  palm  (Cocos  nucijera  L.)  yields  food  for  man  and 
cattle,  oil,  fiber,  and  other  useful  products,  also  adulterants. 

The  flowers  are  arranged  in  spikes  branching  from  a  central  axis 
and  inclosed  with  a  tough  spathe  usually  a  meter  or  more  in  length.  A 
single  female  flower  is  borne  near  the  base  of  each  lateral  axis,  and  numer- 
ous male  flowers  are  distributed  on  all  sides  of  the  axis  between  the  female 
flower  and  the  apex.  After  the  male  flowers  drop,  the  naked  lateral 
axis  persists,  forming  a  prominent  appendage  of  the  fruit  (Fig.  229,  A). 
Only  one  ovule  of  the  three-celled  ovary  comes  to  maturity,  but  the  tri- 
carpellary  nature  of  the  fruit  is  indicated  by  its  triangular  shape  as  well 
as  by  the -longitudinal  ridges  and  the  three  eyes  or  germinating  holes  of 
the  nut.  When  ripe  the  fruit  is  inverted  pear-shape,  25  cm.  or  more  in 
length. 

The  epicarp  (Fig.  229,  Epi)  is  a  smooth  tough  coat,  of  a  brownish 
or  grayish  color. 

The  mesocarp  (Mes),  consists  of  a  thin,  but  hard  outer  coat,  and 
a  soft  portion  usually  3-4  cm.  thick  on  the  sides  and  much  thicker  on 
the  base,  with  numerous  longitudinally  arranged  fibers. 

Oftentimes  the  inner  layers  of  the  mesocarp  become  impregnated 
with  a  brown  fluid,  which  on  drying  gives  the  thin  tissue  a  mottled  brown 
appearance. 

The  endocarp,  or  shell  (Fig.  229,  End',  Fig.  230),  consists  of  a  hard. 

281 


282  NUTS. 

dark-brown  coat,  2-6  mm.  thick,  with  numerous  fibers  adhering  to  the 
surface.  Three  nearly  equidistant  ridges  (often  indistinct)  pass  from 
base  to  apex,  where  they  unite  to  form  a  blunt  point.  At  the  basal  end, 
between  the  ridges,  are  the  three  depressions  or  eyes  (K),  the  tissues  of 
which  are  much  softer  and  thinner  than  those  of  the  rest  of  the  shell. 


S 


FiG.  229.  Cocoanut  (Cocos  nucifera).  S  lower  part  of  axis  forming  stem;  A  upper  end 
of  axis  with  scars  of  male  flowers;  Epi  epicarp;  Mes  mesocarp  with  fibers;  End endocarp 
or  hard  shell;  T  portion  of  spermoderm  adhering  to  endosperm;  Alb  endosperm  sur- 
rounding cavity  of  the  nut;  K  germinating  eye.  X£.  (WINTON.) 


Through  the  softest  of  these  eyes  the  embryo,  embedded  in  the  endosperm 
directly  behind  it,   escapes  in  sprouting. 

The  Spermoderm  of  the  anatropous  seed  (T)  is  a  thin  coat  of  a  light- 
brown  color,  closely  united  with  the  endocarp  without  and  the  endo- 
sperm within.  Embedded  in  the  outer  portion  and  extending  from  the 
principal  eye  nearly  to  the  apex  is  the  raphe,  consisting- of  a  thin  band 
of  vascular  tissues  about  i  cm.  broad,  which  sends  off  branches  in  all 
directions,  forming  a  network  about  the  seed.  The  endosperm  with 
the  inner  portion  of  the  spermoderm  may  be  separated  from  the  outer 
spermoderm  and  endocarp  by  introducing  a  knife-blade  between  the  layers. 
By  this  operation  the  veins  are  split,  part  of  the  vascular  tissue  adhering 
to  the  convex  surface  of  the  inner  spermoderm  and  the  remainder  to 


COCOANUT. 


283 


the  concave  surface  of  the  outer  sperm oderm,  so  that  both  surfaces  are 
covered  with  reticulations. 

The  endosperm  or  meat  (Alb.)  is  a  white,  fleshy 
layer,    1-2   cm.    thick,   in   which,    near    the   base, 
is    embedded    the    small    embryo.     While    imma- 
ture, the  nut  is  filled  with  a  milky  liquid  and  has  no 
solid  endosperm,  but  as  the  ripening  proceeds  the 
endosperm  is  gradually  formed  and  at  the  same 
time  the  milky  liquid   diminishes  in  quantity  or 
entirely  disappears. 

The  epicarp  and  mesocarp  are  cut  away  from 
nuts  designed  for  export,  although  invariably  a 
small  amount  of  the  mesocarp  with  its  fibers  re- 
mains attached  to  'the  shell.  The  dried  meat 
(copra)  is  exported  in  large  amount  to  Europe, 
where  the  oil  is  expressed. 

HISTOLOGY. 


FIG.  230.  Cocoanut.  In- 
ner surface  of  shell  with 
adhering  outer  spermo- 
derm.  At  the  left  the 
raphe,  from  which  pro- 
ceed veins  forming  a  net- 
work over  the  surface. 

Xf      (WlNTON.) 


Pericarp.  .  i.  The  Epicarp  consists  of  a  single  layer  of  rectangular 
cells  with  dark  contents. 


Ph 


ste 


FIG.  231.  Cocoanut.  Cross  section  of  a  large  flattened  (mesocarp)  fiber,  ste  stegmata; 
/  sheath  of  bast  fibers;  ph  two  phloem  groups;  x  xylem;  p  parenchyma  of  ground 
tissue;  a  rudimentary  bundle  belonging  to  small  branch.  Xpo.  (WlNTON.) 

2.  Mesocarp.     The  outer  portion  consists  of  a  ground  tissue  of  thick- 
walled,  porous  cells,  through  which  pass  longitudinally  arranged  strands 


284 


NUTS. 


of  bast  elements.  Further  inward  the  ground  tissue  is  thin-walled 
parenchyma  and  the  strands  are  well  developed  fibro-vascular  bundles. 
Wherever  the  brown  liquid  previously  referred  to  has  penetrated  the 


ste 


FIG.  232.  Cocoanut.  Longitudinal  section  of  a  large  (mesocarp)  fiber,  ste  stegmata; 
Si  silicious  body;  /  bast  fibers;  t  tracheids  with  small  pits;  /'  tracheids  with  large  pits; 
sp  spiral  vessel;  r  reticulated  vessel;  sc  scalariform  vessel;  s  sieve  tube;  c  and  c'  cambi- 
form  cells.  X3OO.  (WiNTON.) 

inr^er  layers  of  the  mesocarp,  groups  of  the  parenchyma  cells  here  and 
there,  being  impregnated  with  this  material,  are  of  a  brown  color  and 
appear  thicker- walled  than  the  others  (Fig.  234,  br).  This  brown  sub- 
stance is  quickly  changed  to  a  reddish  color  by  alkali,  but  is  not 
affected  by  alcohol,  ether,  or  the  specific  reagents  for  proteids,  fats  and 

resins.  No  immediate  effect  is  produced  by 
ferric  chloride  solution,  but  on  long  standing 
the  color  is  changed  to  olive-green. 

Coir  fibers  (Figs.  231  and  232)  are  built 
up  of  a  thick  sheath  of  bast  fibers  with  rows  of 
stegmata  on  the  surface,  and  within  the  sheath 
two  groups  of  phloem  and  one  of  xylem. 
As  seen  in  surface  view  the  stegmata  (ste)  are  circular  or  elliptical, 
thick- walled  cells  (8-20  //)  extending  in  longitudinal  rows  over  the  surface 
of  the  fibers.  Inclosed  in  each  cell  and  filling  it  almost  completely  is 
a  silicious  body  (Fig.  233),  6-12  //,  with  wart-like  protuberances  on  the 
surface. 

The  phloem  elements  are  sieve  tubes  and  cambiform  cells;   the  xylem 
elements,  spiral,  reticulated  and  scalariform  vessels,  also  tracheids. 


FIG.  233.  Cocoanut.  Silicious 
bodies  from  the  stegmata  of 
a  fiber.  Xisoo.  (WiNTON.) 


COCOANUT. 


285 


t>r~ 


Mes 


>End 


PIG.  234.  Cocoanut.  Cross  section  of  shell.  End  endocarp  or  hard  shell;  Mes  adhering 
mesocarp;  T  adhering  outer  spermoderm;  iv  colorless  parenchyma  of  mesocarp;  br 
same  as  iv  but  impregnated  with  a  brown  substance;  g  vascular  bundles  in  the  endo- 
carp, with  phloem  and  xylem  partially  obliterated;  1st  longitudinally  elongated  and 
isodiametric  stone  cells;  qst  transversely  elongated  stone  cells.  X6o.  (WiNTON.) 


236 


NUTS. 


Endocarp  (Figs.  234  and  235).  This  coat,  known  commonly  as  the 
shell,  is  a  dense  aggregation  of  stone  cells,  among  which  run  longitudi- 
nally, partially  destroyed  bundles. 

The  stone  cells  have  thick,  deep  yellow  walls,  branching  pores, 
and  dark-brown  contents.  They  are  either  isodiametric  or  strongly 

1st 

qst 


FIG.  235.  Cocoanut.  Longitudinal-radial  section  of  shell  (endocarp)  through  the  stone 
cells  and  edge  of  bundle,  qst  transversely  elongated  and  isodiametric  stone  cells;  1st 
longitudinally  elongated  stone  cells;  /  thick-walled  porous  cells;  g  pitted  vessel;  sp 
spiral  vessel.  X3<x>.  (WINTON.) 

elongated.  The  latter  (often  20  /*  long)  are  usually  spindle-  or  wedge- 
shaped,  although  hammer-shaped,  hooked  and  various  other  curious 
forms  abound. 

They  are  arranged  in  groups,  commonly  with  the  longer  diameters  in 
tangential  transverse  directions  and  are  best  seen  in  cross  sections  of 
the  shell  (qst),  but  in  some  groups,  particularly  those  adjoining  the 
bundles,  they  pass  longitudinally  about  the  shell  (1st). 

Groups  of  thinner-walled  cells  with  dark-brown  contents  are  occa- 
sionally met  with. 


COCOANUT. 


287 


The  brown  contents  of  all  the  endocarp  cells  react  the  same  as  the 
brown  impregnating  material  of  the  mesocarp. 

Vascular  bundles  (Fig.  234,  g;  Fig.  235)  are  studied  with  difficulty  in 
the  mature  shell.  By  the  rupture  of  the  phloem  and  part  of  the  xylem 
during  growth,  passages  are  formed,  which,  in  shells  transversely  cut  or 
broken,  are  evident  to  the  naked  eye  as  minute  holes.  The  structure 


k 


FIG.  236.  Cocoanut.  Tangential  section  of  outer  spermoderm  showing  ground  tissue 
of  thick-walled  porous  cells.  Most  of  these  are  empty,  but  a  few  contain  brown  contents 
in  the  form  of  k  globules,  or  v  films  with  circular  openings,  st  colorless  stone  cells; 
sp  spiral  trachea.  X^oo.  (WiNTON.) 

of  the  bundles  is  still  further  obscured  by  the  presence  of  fungus  threads 
and  spores. 

In  structure  the  bundles  differ  from  those  of  the  mesocarp  fibers, 
the  bast  fibers  being  replaced  by  forms  (/)  intermediate  between  these 
and  tracheids.  The  vascular  elements  are  chiefly  spiral  vessels  (sp), 
and  pitted  vessels  (g),  the  latter  being  especially  noticeable. 

Spermoderm.  i.  Outer  Layers.  This  coat  consists  of  a  ground 
tissue  of  large,  variously  shaped  cells,  crossing  one  another  in  all  direc- 
tions (Fig.  236),  between  which  ramify  the  veins. 

2.  Inner  Layers.  Firmly  attached  to  the  endosperm  are  from  ten 
to  twenty  layers  of  small  isodiametric  or  slightly  elongated  cells.  The 


288 


NUTS. 


al 


double  walls  are  about  3  /JL  thick  and  free  from  pores.  These  cells  con- 
tain a  material  varying  in  color  from  light  yellow  to  dark  brown,  which 
either  fills  them  completely  or  occurs  in  globules,  films,  etc.,  as  in  some 

of  the  cells  of  the  outer  spermoderm.  In 
the  layer  adjoining  the  endosperm  the  cells 
are  smaller  and  have  darker  brown  con- 
tents than  the  cells  in  the  other  layers. 

Endosperm  (Fig.  237).  In  the  outer 
layers,  the  prismatic  cells  are  nearly  iso- 
diametric  (about  50  /*  in  diameter),  but 
further  inward  they  are  radially  elongated, 
often  reaching  a  length  of  300  //.  Double 
cell-walls  are  about  3  JJL  thick.  According 
to  T.  F.  Hanausek,  the  radial  walls  are 
non-porous;  the  tangential  walls,  however, 
show  large,  but  indistinct  pores,  which  are 
evident  after  heating  with  water  or  treat- 
ment with  alkali.  The  cell-contents  are 
FIG  237.  Cocoanut.  Cross  section  bundles  of  needle-shaped  fat  crystals,  and 

of    endosperm    in    glycerine,     al  . 

aleurone  grain;  jfer  crystalloid;  fk  aleurone  grams,    each   grain    usually   con- 
^SSsUo  °n  PlaSma'    (T'   taininS  a  larSe  crystalloid,  sometimes  25  p 

in   diameter.      Ether    and    alcohol    readily 

dissolve  the  fat  crystals  and  strong  alkali  saponifies  them.  The  aleurone 
grains  give  the  usual  color  reactions  with  iodine,  Millon's  reagent, 
and  dyes. 

DIAGNOSIS. 


Shredded  Cocoanut  is  the  desiccated  flesh  of  the  cocoanut  reduced 
to  a  coarse  powder.  It  is  sold  in  packages  for  use  in  making  pastries 
and  confectionery. 

The  microscopic  elements  are  the  thin- walled  cells  (Fig.  237)  of  the 
endosperm,  containing  large  aleurone  grains  and  fat,  also  occasional 
fragments  of  the  spermoderm. 

Cocoanut  Cake,  the  residue  from  the  manufacture  of  cocoanut  oil, 
is  in  Europe  a  well-known  cattle  food  and  adulterant  of  spices,  but  is 
almost  unknown  in  the  United  States.  The  cells  of  the  endosperm  are 
distinguished  from  those  of  the  palm  nut  by  their  thinner  walls;  the 
contents  of  large  aleurone  grains  and  fat  are,  however,  much  the  same 
in  the  two  species.  Of  no  little  value  in  diagnosis  are  the  tissues  of  the 


COCOANUT.  289 

spermoderm,  especially  the  porous,  moderately  thick- walled  elements 
of  the  outer  layers. 

Cocoanut  Shells.  It  is  stated  on  credible  authority  that  in  a  certain 
American  city  several  hundred  tons  of  shells,  obtained  as  a  by-product 
in  the  preparation  of  shredded  cocoanut  are  annually  reduced  to  a  powder 
in  mills  of  peculiar  construction  and  sold  to  spice  grinders.  This  powder, 
without  further  treatment,  is  mixed  with  ground  allspice,  which  it  closely 
resembles  in  appearance.  By  cautious  roasting  the  color  of  ground 
cloves  and  nutmegs  is  matched,  and  by  roasting  at  a  higher  temperature 
a  charcoal  is  obtained  which,  mixed  with  starchy  matter,  is  a  clever 
imitation  of  black  pepper. 

Powdered  cocoanut  shells  appear  to  be  a  distinctively  American 
adulterant,  while  cocoanut  cake,  which  in  Europe  is  commonly  em- 
ployed both  as  a  cattle  food  and  as  an  adulterant  of  human  foods,  is 
almost  unknown  in  America. 

All  the  tissue  elements  of  the  mesocarp,  the  endocarp  and  the  outer 
spermoderm  are  present  in  cocoanut  shell  powder  (Fig.  238),  but  the 
stone  cells  (st)  of  the  endocarp  make  up  the  bulk  of  the  material.  These 
stone  cells  are  characterized  by  their  brown-yellow  walls,  their  dark- 
brown  contents  becoming  red-brown  on  treatment  with  alkali,  and  the 
predominance  of  peculiar  elongated  forms.  They  differ  in  one  or  more 
of  these  characteristics  from  the  stone  cells  of  pepper,  allspice,  clove 
stems,  walnut  shells,  almond  shells,  Brazil-nut  shells,  hazelnut  shells, 
peach  stones  and  olive  stones. 

The  outer  spermoderm  or  lining  of  the  shell  also  forms  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  powder,  the  most  striking  elements  being  the  thick-walled 
porous  cells  (p)  and  the  vascular  elements. 

Colorless  cells  of  the  mesocarp  ground  tissue  (w)  are  not  distinguish- 
able from  the  parenchyma  of  many  other  plants,  but  when  impregnated 
with  the  brown  substance  which  has  been  described  they  are  striking 
objects  (br).  Alkali  changes  the  color  of  these  brown  cells  to  a  reddish 
brown,  but  ferric  chloride  does  not  produce  any  immediate  effect,  thus 
distinguishing  them  from  the  brown  cells  of  allspice  seed,  the  color  of 
which  alkali  removes  and  ferric  chloride  changes  at  once  to  a 
green. 

Spiral,  reticulated,  and  pitted  vessels  (sp,  t,  and  g),  from  the  meso- 
carp, endocarp,  and  spermoderm  bundles,  are  also  frequently  met  with 
in  the  powder,  the  pitted  vessels  being  quite  unlike  any  vascular  ele- 
ments of  the  spices. 


290 


NUTS. 


The  stegmata  (ste)  of  the  mesocarp  fibers  with  their  silicious  con- 
tents are  characteristic,  but  they  are  difficult  to  find  owing  to  the  great 


w 


FIG.  238.  Cocoanut  shell.  Elements  in  powder  form,  st  dark-yellow  stone  cells  with 
brown  contents;  t  reticulated  vessel;  sp  spiral  vessel;  g  pitted  vessel;  iv  colorless,  and 
br  brown  parenchyma  of  mesocarp;  /  bast  fibers  with  ste  stegmata.  X 160.  (WiNTON.) 

preponderance  of  other  tissues.     Bast  fibers  (/)   are  more  liable  to  be 
encountered  than  stegmata,  but  they  furnish  less  conclusive  evidence. 

Spices  adulterated  with  charred  cocoanut  shells  show  under  the 
microscope  black,  opaque  fragments  which  are  not  bleached  by  aqua 
regia,  or  nitric  acid  and  potassium  chlorate.  Except  in  cases  where 
some  of  the  stone  cells  or  other  elements  have  escaped  charring,  this 
material  cannot  be  distinguished  from  other  forms  of  charcoal. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Benecke  (2);  Bohmer,  (6,  10,  23);  Col- 
lin  et  Perrot  (9);  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16,  17,  48);  Harz  (18);  Moeller  (29);  Planchon 
e.t  Collin  (34);  Vogl  (45). 

MOELLER:  Die  Rohstoffe  des  Tischler-  und  Drechslergewerbes.     Cassel.   1884. 
WINTON:  The  Anatomy  of   the    Fruit   of   Cocos  nucifera.      Amer.   Jour.  Sci.    1901, 

12,   265.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.   Sta.    Rep.   1901,  208.     Amer.  Jour.  Pharm.  1901, 

73,  523. 

PALfl-NUT. 

Closely  related  to  the  cocoanut,  although  differing  greatly  from  it  in 
macroscopic  appearance,  is  the  drupaceous  fruit  of  the  oil-palm  (Elaeis 
Guineensis  L.). 


PALM-NUT. 


291 


The  palm  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  date  and  has  a  deep-red,  oily 
fruit  flesh  or  mesocarp,  and  a  hard  endocarp.  Within  the  thin,  brown 
spermoderm  is  a  blue-gray  endosperm  containing  a  minute  embryo,  and 
within  the  endosperm  is  a  small  cleft  corresponding  to  the  large  cavity 
of  the  cocoanut. 

Palm  oil  is  expressed  from  the  seed,  which  has  previously  been  freed 
from  the  mesocarp  and  the  greater  part  of  the  endocarp. 

HISTOLOGY. 

After  shelling,  a  few  stone  cells  of  the  endocarp  often  remain  attached 
to  the  spermoderm.  These,  in  surface  view,  are  polygonal  with  distinct 
pores. 

The  Spermoderm  (Fig.  239,  s)  is  composed  of  several  layers  of  thin- 
walled,  tangentially  elongated  cells,  those  in  one  layer  often  crossing 
those  of  the  adjoining  layer.  The 
outer  cells  contain  a  brown  sub- 
stance, the  inner,  a  material  which, 
according  to  T.  F.  Hanausek,  be- 
comes lemon-yellow  with  alkali. 

The  Endosperm  (Fig.  239,  E) 
of  the  palm -nut  is  distinguished 
from  that  of  the  cocoanut  by  the 
thicker  walls  (double  5  /z)  and  more 
distinct  pores,  the  walls,  in  section, 
having  a  knotty  appearance.  As 
a  rule,  the  cells  are  radially  elon- 
gated. Masses  of  fat  crystals  and 
aleurone  grains  are  the  most  con- 
spicuous cell-contents.  T.  F. 
Hanausek  states  that  crystals  of 
fatty  acids  grouped  in  bundles  are 


:G.  239.  Palm-nut  (Elaeis  Guineensis). 
Outer  portion  of  seed  in  cross  section. 
s  spermoderm;  E  endosperm  containing 
a  aleurone  grains.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 


also  present.  Globular  aleurone 
grains  (a),  each  containing  a  large  crystalloid,  may  be  seen  in  water 
or  glycerine  mounts,  but  are  best  studied  after  successive  treatment 
with  tincture  of  iodine  and  very  dilute  hydrochloric  acid.  This  latter 
procedure,  recommended  by  Hanausek,  colors  the  grains  yellow,  the 
brilliant  crystalloid  being  clearly  seen  through  the  transparent  proteid 
envelope.  In  the  inner  layers,  the  aleurone  grains  are  often  25  /*  in 
diameter,  in  the  outer  layers,  much  smaller. 


292  NUTS. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Palm  Cake  and  the  meal  prepared  from  it  is  imported  from  Africa 
into  Europe  for  cattle  feeding.  It  is  also  much  used  as  an  adulterant 
of  pepper. 

This  product  is  distinguished  from  cocoanut  cake  by  the  distinctly 
porous,  knotty-thickened  walls  of  the  endosperm  (Fig.  239,  E).  Tissues 
of  the  spermoderm  (s)  and  endocarp  are  also  of  service  in  identi- 
fication. 

The  aleurone  grains  (a),  fat  masses,  and  bundles  of  raphides,  which 
make  up  the  bulk  of  the  material,  are  rendered  distinct  by  treatment 
with  iodine  tincture  followed  by  dilute  hydrochloric  acid. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Benecke  (2);  Bohmer  (6,  10,  23);  Collin 
(8);  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (10,  16,  17,  48);  Harz  (18);  Moeller  (29);  Schimper  (37); 
Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (45). 

EMMERLING:     Ueber    Palmkernkuchen    und  mehl.      Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1898,  50,  5. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:   Ueber  die  Frucht  der  Oelpalme.     Ztschr.   allgem.   osterr.  Apoth.- 

Ver.  1882,  15,  325. 

KOBUS:    Kraftfutter  und  seine  Verfalschung.     Landw.  Jahrb.  1884,  13,  813. 
MEYER,  A.:    Ueber  die  Oelpalme.     Arch.  Pharm.  1884,  22,  713. 
MOELLER:   Ueber  afrikanische  Oelsamen.    Dingl.  polyt.  Jour.  1880,  238,  252. 

WAX=PALfl. 

The  seed  of  the  wax-palm  (Corypha  cerifera  L.,  Copernica  cerifera 
Mart.)  for  a  long  time  has  been  used  in  Brazil  as  a  coffee  substitute  and 
in  recent  years  has  been  introduced  into  Europe. 

The  seed,  similar  in  size  and  shape  to  a  small  acom,  is  of  a  light-brown 
color  with  irregular,  dark-brown,  longitudinal  striations.  The  inner 
surface  of  the  spermoderm  and  the  adhering  outer  surface  of  the  endo- 
sperm are  deeply  wrinkled.  A  small  embryo  is  embedded  in  the  endo- 
sperm at  the  base  of  the  seed  near  the  hilum. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  Spermoderm  consists  of:  (i)  two  or  more  layers  of  small,  thin- 
walled,  polygonal  cells;  (2)  several  layers  of  large,  isodiametric  or  slightly 
elongated,  rounded,  sclerenchyma  cells  with  moderately  thick,  porous 
walls,  and  numerous  intercellular  spaces;  and  (3)  a  thick  tissue  of  paren- 
chymatous  elements. 


W 'AX-PALM.    IVORY-NUT.  293 

Endosperm.  As  regards  the  structure  of  the  endosperm,  the  seeds 
belong  in  the  same  class  with  the  coffee  bean,  the  ivory-nut,  the  date 
stone  and  other  seeds  with  carbohydrate  reserve  material  largely  in  the 
form  of  cellulose.  The  cell-walls  are  porous,  somewhat  thinner  than 
those  of  the  date  endosperm. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See    General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  see  also  Bibliog- 
raphy of  Coffee:  Brunette;   Konig. 


IVORY=NUT. 

Several  species  of  the  genus  Phytelephas,  of  which  P.  macrocarpa 
R.  et  P.  is  the  most  important,  yield  the  true  ivory-nuts  or  vegetable 
ivory  used  in  making  buttons  and  other  articles.  The  sawdust  and 
similar  refuse,  after  being  roasted,  has  been  mixed  with  coffee  and  pos- 
sibly other  ground  food  products. 

The  true  ivory-nut,  as  it  appears  in  commerce,  is  of  about  the  size 
of  a  hen's  egg,  but  is  shaped  more  like  a  segment  of  an  orange.  It  con- 
sists of  a  brittle  shell  (the  inner  pericarp),  gray  on  the  surface,  but 
dark  within,  and  inclosed  in  this  a  large  seed  with  a  thin,  brown  spermo  - 
derm.  The  endocarp  and  seed  are  grown  together  during  the  earlier 
stages  of  development,  but  when  fully  ripe,  the  endosperm  together  with 
most  of  the  spermoderm  shrinks  away  from  the  endocarp  and  becomes 
loose  in  the  cavity.  On  the  surface  of  the  loose  seed  may  be  seen  the 
raphe  and  its  numerous  branches,  also  near  the  hilum,  a  wart-like  pro- 
tuberance beneath  which  is  a  small  cavity  containing  the  germ. 

I  HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp.     Three  layers  of  the  pericarp  form  the  shell. 

1.  The  Outer  Layer  is  made  up  of  several  layers  of  thickly  porous, 
colorless  cells  arranged  in  radial  rows  like  cork  cells. 

2.  Palisade  Cells.     These    remarkable    cells,    brought    to    notice    by 
Molisch,  are  500  JJL  high  and  40-90  /*  broad,  with  thickened  inner  and 
side  walls  of  a  dark-brown  color.     The  side  walls  diminish  in  thickness 
toward    the    top,    the    cavity    being    as    a    consequence   funnel-shaped. 
What  is  most  remarkable  of  all  is  the  presence  in  each  cell  of  a  silicous 
body  entirely  filling  the  cavity.     These  bodies  may  be  clearly  seen  after 
reducing  sections  to  an  ash  and  dissolving  out  other  mineral  matter  with 
hydrochloric  acid. 


294 


NUTS. 


3.  Collapsed  Cells  form  a  thin  layer  beneath  the  palisade  cells. 
Spermoderm  (Fig.  240,  S).     i.  Sclerenchyma  Fibers  with  dark  con- 
tents, crossing  one  another  in  the  different  layers,  form  the  outer  coat. 
The  separation  of  the  pericarp  from  the  seed    takes    place   in   the 
layer  through  which  ramify  the  raphe  and  its  branches,  the  outer  portion 

of  the  spermoderm  remaining  attached 
to  the  inner  surface  of  the  pericarp. 

2.  Inner  Layers.  Large,  nearly 
isodiametric  cells  with  thick  walls, 
but  without  evident  pores,  complete 
the  spermoderm.  These  are  shown 
at  the  left  in  Fig.  241. 

sp 


FIG.  240.  Ivory-nut  (Phytelephas  macro- 
car  pa).  Cross  section  of  outer  layers.  S 
spermoderm;  E  endosperm  with  thick- 
ened cell  walls.  (MOELLER.) 


FIG.    241.      Ivory-nut.     Elements   of 
spermoderm.     Xi6o.    (MOELLER.) 


The  Endosperm  (Fig.  240,  E)  of  the  ivory-nut  is  the  most  striking 
of  all  the  examples  of  reserve  material  in  the  form  of  cellulose.  The 
cell-walls  are  on  the  average  about  35  /£  thick  and  often  exceed  50  p. 
Penetrating  these  walls  are  conspicuous  pores,  which  broaden  at  the 
middle  lamella.  Most  of  the  cells  are  radially  elongated. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Ivory-nut  powder,  a  material  used  as  an  adulterant  of  coffee,  is  identi- 
fied by  the  enormously  thickened  cell-walls  of  the  endosperm  (Fig.  240), 
also  by  the  tissues  of  the  spermoderm  (Fig.  241)  and  pericarp.  The 
only  materials  with  which  it  might  be  confounded  are  ground  date  stones 
and  Polynesian  ivory-nuts.  The  date  stone  seldom  has  cell-walls  as 


POLYNESIAN  IVORY-NUT.    EUROPEAN  WALNUT.  295 

thick  as  those  in  the  ivory-nut,  furthermore,  the  tissues  of  the  spermoderm 
are  different. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:    Bohmer  (23);   Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16,  17, 
48);    Moeller  (29);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);    Vogl  (45). 
HANAUSEK,   T.   F.:    Ueber  einige,   gegenwartig  im    Wiener   Handel  vorkommende 

Gewiirzfalschimgen.     Ztschr.   Nahr.-Unters.   Hyg.  1894,  8,  95. 
MOLISCH:    Die  Kieselzellen  in  der  Steinschale  der  Steinnuss.     Centr.-Org.  Waarenk. 

Techn.  1891,  103. 
MOELLER:    Die   Rohstoffe   des  Tischler-   und  Drechslergewerbes.     Cassel,  1884. 

POLYNESIAN    IVORY-NUT. 

Of  late  years,  seeds  of  several  species  of  Coclococcus  known  as  Poly- 
nesian or  Tahiti  ivory-nuts  have  been  substituted  for  true  ivory-nuts, 
and  their  by-products,  quite  probably,  have  been  utilized  for  adulterat- 
ing foods. 

T.  F.  Hanausek  finds  that  these  seeds  differ  from  true  ivory-nuts 
in  having:  (i)  longer  but  narrower  endosperm  cells;  (2)  more  conspicu- 
.ous  middle  lamellae;  (3)  diagonal  markings  on  the  cell-walls  as  seen  in 
section;  and  last  but  most  important,  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate  as  cell- 
contents. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:    Zur  Anatomie  der  Tahitinuss.     Ztschr.    allgem.   osterr.    Apoth.- 
Ver.,  1880,  13,  360.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1893,  7,  197. 


WALNUTS    (Juglandacece). 

The  fruits  are  2-4  celled,  with  a  rather  thick,  leathery  mesocarp 
and  a  hard,  2-4  celled  endocarp  or  nut  shell.  The  seed  consists  largely 
of  a  curiously  furrowed  embryo  with  reserve  material  in  the  form  of 
fat  and  proteid  matter.  The  endocarp  is  made  up  of  a  dense  mass  of 
colorless  stone  cells.  Characteristic  of  the  spermoderm  are  the  large 
stomata. 

EUROPEAN    WALNUT. 

The  walnut  tree  (Juglans  regia  L.),  a  native  of  Asia,  is  extensively 
cultivated  throughout  the  central  and  southern  regions  of  Europe,  par- 
ticularly in  France,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Greece,  also  within  the  past  few 


296 


NUTS. 


years  in  California.     As  European  nuts  reach  America  by  way  of  Eng- 
land they  are  known  there  as  English  walnuts., 

Inclosed  by  the  husk,  the  fruit  is  usually  4-8  cm.  long  and  about 
two-thirds  as  broad.  When  dry  the  epicarp  and  strongly  scented 
mesocarp  separate  from  the  nut  proper,  consisting  of  .the  shell  or  endo- 
carp  and  the  seed.  The  nut  is  light  brown,  ovoid,  short-pointed,  and 
marked  on  the  surface  by  shallow  furrows  and  depressions.  Encircling 
it  longitudinally  is  a  suture,  into  which  a  knife-blade  may  be  easily  in- 
serted, thus  separating  the  shell  into  two  equal  segments.  Thin  par- 
titions divide  the  cavity  imperfectly  into  four  cells  at  the  base  and  two 
at  the  top.  The  curiously  wrinkled  and  lobed  orthotropous  seed,  con- 
forming in  shape  to  the  embryo,  is  covered  with  a  thin,  brownish-yellow 
skin  or  sperm oderm.  The  embryo  has  two  large  cotyledons  arranged 
at  right  angles  to  a  plane  passing  through  the  suture  and  partially 
separated  from  each  other  by  a  thin  partition;  each  cotyledon  is  deeply 
lobed,  the  lobes  being  separated  by  another  partition  at  right  angles 
to  the  first.  The  relatively  small,  pointed  radicle  is  directed  upward. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Only  the  endocarp  and  seed  need  be  studied,  as  the  epicarp  and 
mesocarp  are  removed  before  the  nuts  are  marketed. 

Pericarp.  Sect  ons  of  the  shell  are  cut  with  a  strong  blade  or  are 
obtained  by  grinding  on  an  oil  stone  (p.  13). 

i.  The  Outer  Endocarp  (Fig.  242),  the  hardest  part  of  the  shell,  is 

a  dense  aggregate  of  nearly  isodiametric 
cells  with  almost  colorless  walls  so  strongly 
thickened  that  the  lumen  is  scarcely  evi- 
dent. 

2.  Middle  Endocarp  (m) .     The  cells  in- 
crease in    size   and  the  walls  diminish  in 
thickness  in  the  middle  layers,  the  thick- 
ness of  the  walls  in  most  of  the  cells  being 
much  less  than  the  breadth  of  the  lumen. 
Many  of  the  cells  have  irregularly  concave 
faces,    a    peculiarity    noticeable    even     in 
powdered  shells. 

3.  The  Inner  Endocarp  (i)  is    a  loose 
parenchyma  with  thin,  brownish  walls  becoming  darker  on  addition  of 
alkali. 


FIG.  242.  Walnut  (Juglans  regia). 
Tissues  of  shell,  a  stone  cells 
of  outer  layer;  m  stone  cells 
of  middle  layer;  i  parenchyma 
of  inner  layer.  Xi6o.  (MOEL- 
LER.) 


I 

EUROPE/IN  WALNUT.  297 

Spermoderm.  The  seed  may  be  easily  sectioned  without  special 
preparation.  The  cell  structure  should  be  studied  after  treatment  with 
Javelle  water  and  staining;  the  aleurone  grains,  in  sections  mounted 
directly  in  turpentine  or,  after  extraction  with  ether,  in  glycerine. 

1.  Outer   Epidermis.     As   may    be   seen   in   cross  section,  the   thin- 
walled,  prismatic  cells,  containing  yellow  or  brown  material,  are  more 
or  less   radially  elongated,   and  often  divided  by  tangential  partitions. 
In  surface  view  they  are  sharply  polygonal.     The  large  stomata,  often 
broader  than  long,  are  very  noticeable. 

2.  The  Middle  Layers  are  composed  of  compressed  yellow-brown  cells 
which  do  not  usually  assume    their   original   form    on   treatment   with 
Javelle  water. 

3.  Inner  Epidermis.    The  cells   of  this   layer  are   also  compressed, 
but  on  soaking  in  Javelle  water  swell  to  their  original  form. 

Perisperm.  The  hyaline  membrane,  forming  what  appears  to  be 
the  thickened  outer  wall  of  the  endosperm,  is  probably  the  remains  of 
the  perisperm. 

Endosperm.  The  outer  cell  layer  of  the  seed  flesh,  although  usu- 
ally firmly  attached  to  the  second  layer,  is  sharply  differentiated  from 
the  latter,  the  two  layers  being  separated  by  a  thick  membrane.  This 
outer  layer  is  endosperm.  Seen  in  surface  view,  the  polygonal  cells  are 
I5~4°  n  in  diameter  and  have  thick  walls.  They  resemble  the  aleurone 
cells  of  cereals. 

Embryo.  The  cells  are  of  the  usual  thin-walled  parenchymatous 
type  and  contain  irregular  aleurone  grains  up  to  10  /j.  in  diameter,  also 
oil  globules. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  Seeds  or  "meats"  are  largely  used  in  foods,  either  whole  or 
chopped.  The  residue  from  the  manufacture  of  walnut  oil  is  obtained 
in  limited  amount  in  Europe  and  is  utilized  as  a  cattle  food. 

The  most  conspicuous  elements  are  the  polygonal  outer  epidermal 
cells  of  the  spermoderm  and  the  broad  stomata. 

Ground  Walnut  Shells  are  in  Europe  a  common  adulterant  of  spices. 
The  elements  are  of  three  forms:  (i)  the  small  but  thick- walled,  color- 
less stone  cells  (Fig.  242,  a)  of  the  outer  layers;  (2)  the  colorless  stone 
cells  (m)  of  the  middle  layers,  characterized  by  their  large  size,  broad  lu- 
men, and  irregular,  here  and  there  concave,  outline;  (3)  the  loosely 
united  cells  .(i)  of  the  inner  layers,  with  thin,  yellow  or  brown  walls. 


41 
298  NUTS. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bohmer  (23);  Collin  et  Perrot  (9);   Han- 
ausek,  T.  F.  (10,  16);   Mace  (26);  Moeller  (29);   Villiers  et  Collin  (42);   Vogl  (45). 
GODFRIN  :  Etude  histologique  sur  les  tegument  seminaux  des  Angiospermes.    Soc.  d.  Sci. 

d.  Nancy.  1880,  109. 
HARTWICH:    Ueber  die  Fruchtschale  von  Juglans  regia.      Arch.  d.  Pharm.,  1887,  25, 

325- 
PFISTER:    Wallnusskuchen.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat  1894,  43,  448. 


BLACK    WALNUT. 

The  black  walnut  tree  (Juglans  nigra  L.),  a  native  of  America,  is 
valuable  chiefly  for  its  wood.  The  globular  nut  is  about  the  same  size 
and  shape  as  the  European  walnut,  but  has  an  exceedingly  rough  endo- 
carp  with  deep  furrows  and  numerous  sharp,  branching  ridges. 

Notwithstanding  these  differences,  the  two  nuts  have  much  the  same 
microscopic  structure.  The  aleurone  grains  are  somewhat  smaller  in 
the  American  species,  but  the  difference  is  too  slight  to  be  decisive. 

The  nut  is  seldom  found  on  the  market. 

BUTTERNUT. 

This  American  nut,  the  fruit  of  Juglans  cinerea  L.,  differs  from  the 
black  walnut  chiefly  in  being  elongated,  and  sharply  pointed  at  both 
ends.  The  structure  of  the  two  is  practically  the  same. 

PECAN   NUT. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  native  nuts  of  the  United  States,  is  the 
pecan  nut  (Carya  olivaejormis  Nutt.),  produced  by  wild  and  cultivated 
trees  in  the  central  and  central  southern  states. 

The  nut  is  smooth,  elongated,  3-4  cm.  long,  taper-pointed,  and  very 
indistinctly  six-ribbed.  It  is  divided  at  the  base  into  two  cells.  Although 
small,  the  meats  have  a  mild,  delicious  flavor,  and  are  much  used  in 
confectionery,  while  the  shells  are  available  for  adulterating  spices. 

In  structure  both  the  seed  and  shell  are  much  like  those  of  the 
English  walnut.  The  aleurone  grains  are,  however,  somewhat  smaller, 
seldom  exceeding  6  /£  in  diameter. 


HICKORY-NUT.    CHESTNUT.  299 


HICKORY-NUT. 

In  addition  to  the  pecan  tree,  various  others  of  the  same  genus  yield 
edible  nuts,  of  which  the  shellbark  or  shagbark  hickory-nut,  (C.  alba 
Nutt.)  is  the  most  valuable,  and  is  the  only  one  gathered  in  considerable 
amount  for  the  market.  The  somewhat  flattened  nut  of  this  species  is 
about  3  cm.  long  and  nearly  as  broad,  the  light  colored,  more  or  less 
angular  but  otherwise  smooth  surface,  being  marked  with  six  indistinct 
ribs  ending  abruptly  in  a  sharp  point  at  the  apex. 

The  structure  of  the  hickory-nut  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  pecan  nut. 


CUP    NUTS     (CupuKfera). 

These  nuts  are  usually  borne  in  an  involucre  or  cup.  The  pericarp 
is  horny  or  leathery,  with  stone  cell  layers.  The  single  seed  consists 
largely  of  embryo,  which  is  either  starchy  (acorn,  chestnut)  or  fatty 
(beech-nut,  hazelnut).  The  hairs  of  the  pericarp  and  spermoderm  are 
often  of  service  in  diagnosis,  as  are  also  the  starch  grains  of  the  two 
species  named. 

CHESTNUT. 

The  European  or  Spanish  chestnut  (Castanea  saliva  Mill.),  the  Ameri- 
can variety  (C.  saliva  var.  Americana  Michx.),  and  the  Japanese  chest- 
nut (C.  crenala  Sieb.  et  Zucc.)  are  all  forest  trees  of  great  value,  not 
only  for  their  timber  but  for  their  edible  nuts.  In  Spain,  southern  France, 
Italy,  and  other  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  chestnuts 
form  a  staple  article  of  diet  with  the  poorer  classes,  while  in  other 
European  countries  and  in  America  they  are  regarded  more  as  delicacies. 

Spanish  and  Japanese  chestnuts  are  large,  2.5  cm.  or  more  broad, 
whereas  those  of  the  American  variety  are  only  1.5-2.5  cm.  broad. 
Commonly  2-3,  rarely  4-7,  nuts  are  enclosed  within  a  densely  spiny 
involucre  or  burr  which  does  not  open  until  the  nuts  reach  full  maturity. 
The  outer  nuts  in  the  burr  are  plano-convex,  the  inner  flattened  on  both 
sides.  At  the  base  they  are  broad  and  rounded,  at  the  apex  pointed 
with  more  or  less  of  the-  style  attached.  The  dark  brown,  leathery  peri- 
carp is  smooth  and  glossy,  except  on  the  broad  scar  at  the  base,  where 
it  is  dull  and  lusterless,  and  near  the  point,  where  it  is  hairy.  On  the 


300  NUTS. 

• 

inner  surface  it  is  covered  with  a  dense  mat  of  silky  hairs.  The  thin, 
brown  spermoderm  separating  readily  from  the  seed,  is  sparingly  pubes- 
cent on  the  outer  surface,  but  on  the  inner  surface  is  smooth,  although 
marked  by  irregular  ribs  corresponding  to  the  furrows  on  the  surface 
of  the  cotyledons.  The  flesh  of  the  large  cotyledons  is  starchy,  and 
when  dry  is  readily  reduced  to  a  powder.  It  has  a  sweet  taste. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Fresh  or  dried  nuts  of  either  the  Spanish  or  American  chestnut  may 
be  used  for  laboratory  work. 

Pericarp.  Transverse  sections,  also  tangential  sections  at  different 
depths  may  be  cut  with  a  strong  razor  and  examined  both  with  and  with- 
out treatment  with  alkali. 

1.  Epicarp.     The   cells   are   polygonal   or   quadrilateral,    either   iso- 
diametric  or  longitudinally  elongated,  in  the  latter  case  often  arranged 
end  to  end  in  irregular  rows.    Their  contents  are  of  a  deep-brown  color. 
Hairs  are  present  at  maturity  only  about  the  apex,  although  hair  scars 
are  found  on  other  parts.     They  are  pointed  or  rather  blunt,  2-3  mm. 
long,   and   vary  greatly   in   breadth   and   wall-thickness.     The   breadth 
of  the  lumen  in  the  larger  hairs  is  greater  than  the  thickness  of  the  walls, 
but  in  the  case  of  the  smaller  hairs  the  reverse  is  often  true. 

2.  Sclerenchyma.     The   cells   of   the   outer   layers,    as   appears   from 
cross  sections,  are  radially  elongated,  often   50  /*  high,  and  have  thick 
walls.     In  tangential  section  they  are  either  isodiametric  or  longitudi- 
nally elongated,  the  walls  being  deeply  sinuous  and  much  folded,  remind- 
ing us  of  the  intestine  cells  of  capsicum.     Their  shorter  diameter  is  usu- 
ally over  25/1.     In  the  middle  layers  the  cells  are  smaller  than  in  the 
outer,  have  relatively  thicker  walls,  and  are  polygonal  in  outline;   while 
in  the  inner  layers  large  cells  with  broad  lumen    predominate.      The 
structure  of  the  tissues  beneath  the  scar  varies  somewhat  from  those 
described  and  many  of  the  cells  contain  large  oxalate  crystals. 

3.  Mesocarp.     Longitudinally   elongated,   more   or  less   quadrilateral 
cells  with  very  thick,  beaded  walls  form  the  middle  layers  of  the  peri- 
carp.-   The  cell-contents  are  colored  brown  and  the  cell-walls  yellow- 
brown.     Intercellular  spaces  frequently  occur  at  the  corners  of  the  cells 
and  between  the  side  walls.     Fibro- vascular  bundles  with  strongly  de- 
veloped bast  tissues   run  through  the  mesocarp. 

4.  Endocarp.    This  layer  is  itself  inconspicuous  owing  to  the  dense 
mat  of  hairs  forming  the  woolly  lining  of  the  pericarp.     The  hairs  vary 


CHESTNUT. 


301 


up  to  several  millimeters  in  length  and  up  to  35  fj.  in  breadth.     They  are 
pointed,  often  crooked,  and  have  broad  lumen  and  very  thin  walls. 

Spermoderm.  This  coat  may  be  separated  from  the  seed  as  a  papery 
brown  membrane. 

1.  The  Outer  Epidermis  consists  of  polygonal  cells  up  to   50  /*  in 
diameter,  interspersed  with  hairs  similar  tc)  those  on  the  endocarp. 

2.  Middle  Layer.     The  loose  tissue  of  brown  cells  traversed  by  fibro- 
vascular  bundles  is  of  little  interest. 

3.  An  Inner  Epidermis  of  polygonal  cells  without  hairs  completes 
the  spermoderm. 

Embryo.  The  parenchymatous  tissue  of  the  cotyledons  contains 
numerous  starch  grains  (Fig.  243)  up  to  -30  /i  in  diameter.  Among 
the  large  grains  are  ovoid,  pear-shaped,  fusiform,  rounded  triangular, 
polygonal,  and  various  irregular  forms,  often  with  wart-like  excres- 
cences. The  hilum  is  commonly  eccentric,  indistinct,  and  may  or  may 
not  have  radiating  clefts.  With  suitable  illumination,  rings  are  clearly 
evident. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Chestnut  Meal  is  a  food  product  of  considerable  importance  in  south- 
ern Europe,  where  it  is  made  into  puddings,  cakes,  and  even  into  bread. 
Starch  (Fig.  243)  is  the  predominating  element.  The  large  grains  are 


FIG.  243.     Chestnut  Starch  (Castanea  vesca).     X6oo.     (MOELLER.) 

less   than   30  /*  in    diameter,    and    are   of   the   various    irregular   forms 
already  noted,  with  inconspicuous,  eccentric  hilum.    Hairs  from  the  peri- 


NUTS. 

carp   or  spermoderm,  like  those  of  the  acorn,  beech -nut,  and  hazelnut, 
are  remarkable  for  their  thin  walls  and  broad  lumen. 

Chestnut  Shells  are  characterized  by  the  thin-walled  hairs,  the 
sclerenchyma  cells  with  thick,  sinuous  walls,  and  the  thick-walled,  beaded 
mesocarp. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16);    Harz  (18);  Vogl 
(45);   Wiesner  (48). 
GODFRIN:  Etude  histologique  sur  les  tegument  seminauxdes  A ngiospermes.    Soc.  d.  Sci. 

d.  Nancy.  1880,  109. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F. :  Zur  mikroskopischen  Charakteristik  des  Kastanienmehles.    Beilage 

der  Ztschr.  f.  Landw.  Gewerbe.     Dobruska,  1883,  No.  i,  3. 

ACORN. 

Several  European  species  of  oak,  notably  Quercus  Cerris  L.,  Q.  pedun- 
culata  Ehrh.,  Q.  sessiliflora  Salisb.,  and  Q.  pubescens  Willd.,  yield  edible 
acorns,  the  kernels  of  which  are  used  chiefly  for  making  a  substitute 
for  coffee  known  as  acorn  coffee.  In  America,  acorns  are  produced  in 
large  quantities  by  numerous  native  species  and  are  eaten  on  the  ground 
by  swine,  but  as  yet  are  not  gathered  for  the  market. 

Whatever  the  species  producing  it,  the  acorn  is  characterized  by  its 
well-known  form,  the  short  wart  at  the  apex,  its  smooth  surface,  and 
the  circular  scar  at  the  base.  The  cup-shaped,  scaly  involucre  (the 
cupule)  in  some  species  is  shallow,  in  others  deep,  nearly  covering  the 
acorn.  The  pericarp  is  made  up  of  a  hard  outer  coat  and  soft  inner 
tissues  of  a  deep  brown  color,  the  innermost  layer  or  endocarp  being  either 
smooth^  or  densely  woolly.  A  thin,  brown  spermoderm  incloses  the 
embryo,  the  latter  consisting  of  two  large  fleshy  cotyledons  and  a  small 
radicle.  Endosperm  is  lacking. 

HISTOLOGY.1 

The  structure  of  acorns  of  different  species  is  very  similar,  the 
chief  differences  being  in  the  presence  or  absence  of  -hairs  on  the  en- 
docarp and  the  size  of  the  starch  grains. 

Cupule.  i.  The  Outer  Epidermis  consists  of  polygonal  cells  averag- 
ing 14  /JL  in  diameter  interspersed  with  numerous  pointed  hairs  varying  up 
to  700  jj.  in  length.  In  the  inner  half  of  each  hair  the  lumen  is  broad, 

1  Free  use  has  been  made  of  the  descriptions  of  Mitlacher,  who  has  studied  the  cupule, 
pericarp,  and  spermoderm  of  Quercus  sessiliflora. 


ACORN. 


3°3 


but  toward  the  apex  it  is  reduced  to  a  narrow  line.    At  the  base  the  hairs 
are  somewhat  constricted  owing  to  pressure  of  adjoining  cells. 

2.  Middle  Layers.  In  a  ground  tissue  of  thin-  or  moderately  thick- 
walled  chlorophyl  parenchyma  are  distributed  numerous  stone  cells 
occurring  either  singly  or  in  small  groups.  These  cells  vary  in  form 
and  are  usually  between  100  and  200  fi  in  diameter.  The  solitary  cells 
have  thinner  walls  than  those  in  groups  and  often  contain  crystal  clusters 
of  calcium  oxalate.  The  bicollateral  bundles  are  accompanied  on  the 
outer  side  by  sclerenchyma  fibers  and  rows  of  crystal  chambers. 

3.  The  Inner  Epidermis  is  much  like  the  outer  in  structure. 

Pericarp,     i.  The  Epicarp  (Fig.  244,  epi\  Fig.  245)  on  the  lower  part 
of  the  fruit  is  made  up  of  cubical  cells  regularly  arranged  in  rows,  form- 


epi 


mes 


FIG.  244.     Acorn  (Quercus  sp.).     Tissues  of  shell  in  cross  section,     epi  epicarp;   st  crystal 
cells  and  stone  cells;   mes  mesocarp.     (MOELLER.) 

ing  a  highly  characteristic  tissue.  These  cells  contain  colorless  drops 
in  a  brown  ground  substance.  On  the  upper  end  in  many  species  are 
numerous  hairs  (Fig.  247,  i)  similar  to  those  of  the  cupule. 

2.  Crystal  Layer.  An  interrupted  hypodermal  layer  of  thin-walled, 
isodiametric  cells,  each  containing  a  large  rhombohedral  crystal  of  cal- 
cium oxalate,  is  clearly  seen  both  in  transverse  and  tangential  sections. 


3°4  NUTS. 

3.  Stone    Cells    (Fig.    244,    sf\.     Radially  elongated,   spindle-shaped 
cells  up  to  56  fj.  long  and  10-20  /*  broad,  with  thick,  sparingly  porous, 
an<^   indistinctly   stratified   walls  and  narrow  lumen  make  up  the  outer 
three  or  four  layers.    In  the  inner  layers  these  pass  by  degrees    into 
isodiametric  cells  with  walls  narrower  than  the  lumen. 

At  the  apex  of  the  fruit  the  dense  stone  cell  tissue  is  replaced  by  a 
brown  parenchyma  in  which  are  numerous  small  stone  cells  with  brown 
walls  and  contents  and  broad  lumen.  Similar  cells  form  a  second  hard 
layer  further  inward.  The  stone  cells  of  the  basal  portion  of  the  peri- 
carp have  characteristic  branching  pores. 

4.  Outer  Mesocarp   (Figs.    244,  mes).    The  loosely   united   cells   of 
this  tissue  in  the  ripe  fruit  are  much  compressed.     The  only  noticeable 


^q^  -^^^^ 

IG.  245.     Acorn.     Epicarp  FIG.  246.     Acorn.     Brown  parenchyma  of  pericarp, 

in   surface    view.     Xi6o.  Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

(MOELLER.) 

cell-contents  are  occasional  crystal  clusters  of  calcium  oxalate.     Through 
this  tissue  pass  the  fibro-vascular  bundles 

5.  Inner  Mesocarp.  A  spongy  parenchyma  (Fig.  246)  of  cells  arranged 
end  to  end  in  longitudinal  rows  forms  a  characteristic  tissue.  In  cross 
section  these  cells  are  round,  in  tangential  section  elongated  with 
numerous  connecting  arms.  The  contents  are  yellow-brown. 

6.  The  Endocarp  is  characterized  by  the  numerous  exceedingly  thin- 
walled  hairs  (Fig.  247,  2),  also  by  the  presence  of  small  crystals  of  vari- 
ous forms. 

The  Spermoderm  is  thicker  over  the  furrows  of  the  cotyledons  than 
in  other  parts. 

1.  Outer  Epidermis.     The   thin-walled,    tabular   cells    are   polygonal 
in  surface  view,  both  the  walls  and  the  contents  being  of  a  deep  brown 
color.     Hairs  from  this  layer  are  shown  in  Fig.  247,  3. 

2.  The  Middle  Layers,   through  which  ramify  the  bundles,   consist 
of  a  loose  brown  parenchyma  containing  crystals  of  various  forms. 

3.  The  Inner  Epidermis  is  much  the  same  as  the  outer. 


ACORN. 


305 


Embryo  (Fig.  248).  The  polygonal  epidermal  and  subepidermal 
cells  of  the  cotyledons  contain  distinct  nuclei,  each  inclosing  a  crystalloid. 
Similar  nuclei  occur  along  with  starch  grains  in  the  small  subepidermal 
cells.  The  remainder  of  the  tissue  is  a  parenchyma  with  round  cells 
about  100  fj.  in  diameter,  having  very  small  intercellular  spaces  at  the 
angles.  They  are  closely  filled  with  ellipsoidal  or  irregular  elongated 
starch  grains  (st)  usually  15-20  //,  rarely  and  only  in  some  varieties, 


FIG.  247.     Acorn.     Hairs:  i  from  epicarp;    2  from  endocarp;   3  from  spermoderm. 

(MOELLER.) 

50  n  long  with  very  distinct,  elongated  hilum.  The  grains  usually  occur 
singly,  although  twins  and  various  larger  aggregates  similar  to  those 
found  in  tapioca,  sago,  and  buckwheat  are  not  uncommon.  The  ellip- 
soidal forms  remind  us  of  the  leguminous  starches.  Fibro- vascular 
bundles  with  small  spiral  vessels  pass  through  the  ground  tissue. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Acorn  Coffee  is  a  product  of  considerable  importance.  It  is  pre- 
pared from  the  shelled  nut  and  should  contain  only  traces  of  the  tissues 
of  the  pericarp  and  spermoderm.  The  conspicuous  elements  are  the 
ellipsoidal  or  irregularly  elongated  starch  grains  (Fig.  248,  sf)  with  elon- 


3°6 


NUTS. 


gated  hilum,  reminding  us  of  leguminous  starch.  These  are  distorted  in 
the  roasted  product. 

A  corn  Flour  is  mixed  with  chocolate  and  other  food  preparations. 

Acorn  Shells  are  used  as  an  adulterant  of  acorn  coffee  and  possibly 
of  other  food  products.  The  quadrilateral  epicarp  cells  (Fig.  245)  in  reg- 
ular rows  overlying  the  crystal  cells,  the  spindle-shaped  stone  cells  (Fig. 
244,  st)  with  narrow  lumen,  also  other  forms  with  broad  lumen,  and 


FIG.  248.     Acorn.     Elements    of    cotyledon,     ep   epidermis;     E   parenchyma;     st   starch; 
sp  spiral  vessel.     X3oo.     (MOELLER.) 

finally  the  exceedingly  thin-walled  hairs  (Fig.  247),  are  the  tissues  of  most 
importance  in  diagnosis. 

The  Cupule  is  also  said  to  serve  as  an  adulterant.  The  geniculate 
hairs  of  the  outer  epidermis  with  constricted  base,  also  the  stone  cells 
of  the  middle  layers  are  the  elements  of  diagnostic  value. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.   671-674:    Berg  (3);    Hanausek,  T.  F.   (10,   16); 
Harz(i8);  Hassell(i9);  Mace  (26);  Moeller  (29) ;  Villiers  et  Collin  (42) ;  Vogl  (43,  45). 
HAGER:   Ueber  Eichelkakao  und  Chokolade.     Pharm.  Ztg.  1888,  33,  511. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:    Mikroskopische  Untersuchung  eines  hollandischen  Eichelkakao. 

Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1887,  1,  247. 

MICHAELIS:   Eichelkakao,  Eichelchokolade.     Pharm.  Ztg.  1888,  33,  568.  . 
MITLACHER:    Die   Fruchthiillen  der  Eichel  (Fructus  Quercus  sessiliflorae)  und   ihre 

mikroskopische   Feststellung   als   Beimengung   zum   Eichelkaffee.     Ztschr.    allg. 

osterr.  Apoth.-Ver.  1901,  39,  i. 

TARDIEU:   Eichelmehl  enthaltendes  Weizenmehl.     Ann.  chim.  analyt.  1898,  3,  307. 
TSCHIRCH:    Untersuchung  der  Eichel-Kakaosorten  des  Handels.      Pharm.  Ztg.  1886, 

32,  190. 


BEECH-NUT.  307 


BEECH-NUT. 

The  European  beech  (Fagus  sylvatica  L.)  and  the  American  species 
(F.  jerruginea  Ait.)  yield  nuts  which,  like  the  walnuts,  contain  no  starch 
but  a  high  percentage  of  oil.  Beech-nuts  are  collected  on  a  commercial 
scale  in  the  forests  of  Europe  for  oil  production,  the  cake  being  utilized 
as  a  cattle  food.  Owing  to  the  presence  of  cholin  the  cake  is  poisonous 
for  horses,  but  is  not  injurious  to  bovine  cattle  or  swine. 

The  American  beech  grows  in  abundance  in  the  eastern  half  of  the 
United  States.  In  Virginia  and  other  states  the  nuts  are  eaten  by  swine 
as  they  drop  from  the  tree,  the  ham  and  bacon  of  these  animals  being 
especially  prized  for  their  fine  flavor;  but  in  most  sections  they  fall  a 
prey  to  squirrels  and  other  wild  animals. 

The  brown  nuts  are  triangular,  winged  near  the  apex,  and  clothed 
with  a  coat  of  minute  hairs  hardly  visible  except  under  a  lens.  Two 
of  these  nuts  are  borne  in  a  prickly  involucre  or  cupule,  which  splits 
into  four  valves.  The  ovary  is  trilocular,  each  with  two  ovules,  but  the 
partition  wall  disappears  during  development  and  only  one  ovule  reaches 
maturity,  completely  filling  the  fruit  cavity.  Remains  of  the  partitions 
are  evident  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  pericarp  as  ridges  running  through 
the  middle  of  the  three  sides.  Silky  hairs  occur  in  some  numbers  along 
these  ridges.  The  brown  spermoderm  is  of  thin  papery  texture  and 
is  united  with  a  still  thinner  endosperm.  Running  through  one  of  the 
angles  is  the  raphe,  which  sends  off  several  distinct  branches  running 
through  the  other  two  angles  as  well  as  in  the  tissues  between.  At  first 
sight  the  embryo  appears  homogeneous,  but  on  closer  inspection  is 
seen  to  consist  of  much  folded  cotyledons  connected  with  a  minute  radicle. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Either  the  European  or  American  beech-nut  may  be  used  for  study, 
as  both  are  essentially  the  same  in  structure. 

Pericarp.  Transverse  sections  are  cut  from  the  middle  of  the  sides 
and  at  the  angles,  also  tangential  sections  at  different  depths. 

i.  The  Epicarp  Cells  are  polygonal  with  moderately  thin,  faintly 
beaded  walls  and  contain  either  a  brown  homogeneous  material  or  well- 
formed  crystals.  The  hairs  of  this  layer  are  short,  pointed,  and  usually 
thick- walled.  Hanausek  notes  that  thin- walled,  twisted  hairs,  also 
multicellular  forms  are  occasionally  found. 


3°8  NUTS. 

2.  Sclerenchyma.     Stone   cells    in   5-10   layers    form  a   dense   hypo- 
dermal  tissue  about  the  nut.     These  are  rounded,  nearly  isodiametric, 
and  have  thick  and  distinctly  porous  walls  and  brown  or  yellow-brown 
contents. 

3.  The  Mesocarp  consists  of  several  layers  of  tangentially  elongated 
parenchyma  cells    with    thick,  porous    walls,    impregnated    with   brown 
coloring  matter.     As   appears   in   cross  section,  large   V-shaped   bundles 
of    bast    fibers    pass    through   the    brown    parenchyma    in    the    angles, 
strengthening  the  tissues.     In  the  inner  portion  of  the  layer  broad  fibro- 
vascular  bundles  with  strongly    developed  bast  fibers  form   an   almost 
continuous    layer.     Accompanying   the    bundles    are    crystal    fibers. 

4.  The  Endocarp  is  of  parenchyma  cells  interspersed  about  the  par- 
tition wall  with  long,  thin-walled  hairs. 

Spermoderm.  i.  Epidermis.  The  cells  are  polygonal,  often  over  50^ 
in  diameter  and  have  deep  brown  walls,  which  Pfister  notes  are  sub- 
erized. 

2.  Brown  Parenchyma  Cells  similar  to   those  of  the  epidermis   but 
smaller,  form  one  or  two  subepidermal  layers. 

3.  A  Spongy  Parenchyma  of  colorless  compressed  cells,   and 

4.  An  Inner  Epidermis  of  thin- walled  elements  completes  the  sperom- 
derm. 

Endosperm.  Adhering  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  spermoderm  is 
a  single  layer  of  thick-walled,  polygonal  aleurone  cells  forming  the  endo- 
sperm. 

Embryo.  The  epidermis  on  the  inner  sides  of  the  cotyledons  has 
larger  cells  than  on  the  outer.  Both  layers  have  thickened  outer  walls. 
The  ground  tissue  in  the  outer  portion  of  the  cotyledon  consists  of  iso- 
diametric cells  passing  into  one  or  more  layers  of  palisade  cells  in  the 
inner  portion.  Procambium  bundles  occur  in  the  middle  layers.  The 
cell-contents  are  aleurone  grains  up  to  15  /£,  fat,  and  calcium  oxalate 
rosettes.  Hanausek  notes  that  a  single  rosette  is  present  in  each  cell 
as  may  be  seen  after  treatment  with  alkali. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Undecorticated  Beech-nut  Cake  can  be  easily  identified  by  the  tissues 
of  the  pericarp  and  spsrmoderm,  provided  fragments  sufficiently  large 
for  cutting  sections  are  present;  otherwise  the  task  is  not  an  easy  one 
as  the  tissues,  although  both  striking  and  varied,  are  not  especially  char- 
acteristic in  surface  view.  The  epicarp  with  short,  usually  thick-walled 


BEECH-NUT.    HAZELNUT.  t  •        309 

hairs,  the  isodiametric  stone  cells,  the  bundles  accompanied  by  bast 
fibers  and  crystal  fibers,  and  the  long,  thin- walled  hairs  of  the  endocarp, 
are  the  most  striking  elements. 

Decorticated  Beech-nut  Cake  is  still  more  difficult  of  diagnosis.  The 
tissues  of  the  cotyledons  are  much  the  same  as  those  of  numerous  other 
oil  seeds,  and  the  brown  cells  of  the  spermoderm  in  surface  view  are  not 
distinctive.  Tissues  of  the  pericarp,  particularly  the  hairs,  are  however 
present  even  in  decorticated  cake,  and  on  these  the  microscopist  must 
largely  depend  in  forming  his  conclusion. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,   pp.  671-674:    Bohmer  (23);    Collin  et  Perrot  (9);  Ha- 
nausek,  T.  F.  (17,  48);   Harz  (18). 
PFISTER:    Buchnusskuchen.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1894,  43,  445. 

HAZELNUT. 

The  hazelnut  is  of  no  little  importance  in  Europe  both  as  a  table 
nut  and  for  the  production  of  hazel  oil  ("nut  oil  "),  which  is  used  on  the 
table  and  in  the  arts. 

The  numerous  European  and  Asiatic  varieties  have  probably  been 
derived  from  three  species:  the  common  hazel  (Corylus  Avellana  L.), 
Lambert's  hazel  or  filbert  (C.  tubulosa  L.),  and  the  Turkish  hazel 
(C.  colurna  L.),  of  which  the  Spanish  or  cobnut  (C.  pontica  Koch)  is 
perhaps  but  a  variety.  Three  native  American  species  (C.  Americana 
Walt.,  C.  rostrata  Ait.,  and  C.  Calif ornica  Rose.)  also  yield  nuts  of 
excellent  quality,  but  are  not  as  yet  cultivated. 

The  nuts  of  all  the  species  named  are  inclosed  in  a  leafy  involucre 
consisting  of  two  more  or  less  foliaceous  members,  which  in  C.  tubulosa, 
C.  rostrata,  and  C.  Californica  is  prolonged  into  a  narrow  tube,  but  in 
the  other  species  is  short  and  open.  The  nuts  of  the  various  species  and 
varieties  differ  both  in  size  and  in  the  ratio  of  breadth  to  length.  They 
have  a  broad  circular  scar  at  the  base,  and  a  short  blunt  point.  On 
the  lower  portion  they  are  smooth,  on  the  upper  covered  with  a  gray 
bloom  consisting  of  numerous  minute  hairs  visible  only  under  a  lens. 
The  pericarp  or  shell  consists  of  a  hard  outer  coat  1-2  mm.  thick  and 
a  brown  spongy  inner  coat.  Through  the  outer  part  of  the  hard  coat, 
corresponding  to  longitudinal  streaks  visible  from  without,  pass  fibro- 
vascular  bundles  which  in  cross  section  appear  as  dark-brown  spots  in 
the  light-colored,  woody  ground  tissue.  One,  rarely  two,  hemitropous 


3J°  NUTS. 

nuts  are  suspended  from  the  top  of  the  cavity.  Each  seed  consists  largely 
of  fleshy  cotyledons,  the  radicle,  the  brown  spermoderm  and  the  colorless 
endosperm  forming  but  a  small  portion  of  its  bulk.  The  short  raphe, 
about  half  the  length  of  the  nut,  and  the  nerves  radiating  from  the  chalaza 
are  distinctly  seen  through  the  spermoderm. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Commercial  hazelnuts  of  any  variety  may  be  studied.  After  noting 
the  macroscopic  characters,  particularly  the  bloom  on  the  outer  sur- 
face, the  brown  nbro-vascular  bundles  of  the  pericarp  and  the  spermo- 
derm with  its  raphe  and  nerves,  transverse  sections 
and  surface  mounts  should  be  prepared. 

Pericarp,  i.  The  Epicarp  is  best  obtained  by 
boiling  the  shell  in  dilute  alkali  and  scraping  with 
a  scalpel.  Fragments  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
shell  consist  of  thin- walled,  isodiametric,  polygonal 
cells  interspersed  with  numerous  hairs.  In  cross 
section  (Fig.  249)  it  may  be  seen  that  the  hairs 
are  deeply  planted  between  the  thin-walled  cells. 
Characteristic  of  these  hairs  are  their  thick  walls, 
the  lumen  being  scarcely  evident  except  in  the 
basal  portion,  and  the  bright  yellow  color  produced 
by  alkali.  On  the  lower  half  of  the  shell  the 
layer  consists  of  isodiametric,  somewhat  elongated 
cells  and  hair  scars,  the  hairs  themselves  usually 
being  lacking. 

2.  Outer  Stone   Cells    (Fig.    249).      The  hard 
portion  of  the  shell    is    in   three   layers,  each   of 
colorless  stone  cells  distinctly  different  from  those 
in.  the   others.     The  stone  cells  in  the  outer  layer 
FIG.  249.  Hazelnut  (Cory-  are    characterized  by    their   rounded    isodiametric 

(Tairs^nd  SS^Jte    ^  distinct  OUtlin6'     ^     «*«*%»  aS  nOted  b>' 

cross  section.      (MAL-  Malfatti,  by  their  loose  arrangement     They  gradu- 
ally increase  in  size  from  15  ,«  in  the  outer  layers 

to  50  fi  in  the  inner.  Being  in  loose  contact,  they  separate  readily  on 
grinding.  Through  this  layer  pass  the  large  bundles,  often  500  p  in 
diameter,  which  in  the  ripe  nut  are  usually  disorganized. 

3.  Middle    Stone    Cells.     In  this  layer  the    stone  cells   are    radially 
elongated  and  closely  arranged. 


HAZELNUT.  311 

4.  The  Inner  Stone  Cells  are    larger  than  those  in    the  two    outer 
layers   and  have  thicker  walls  and  broader  cavities.     They  are  either 
isodiametric  or  tangentially  elongated  and  have  brown  contents.      Ha- 
nausek  has  rightly  observed  that  their  contour  is  ill-defined  on    direct 
examination,    but  becomes  more  distinct  on  addition  of  alkali.      This 
latter  reagent  imparts  to  the  walls  of  the  stone  cells  in  all  three  layers 
a  bright  yellow  color. 

5.  Brown  Parenchyma,  at  maturity  more  or  less  disorganized,  forms 
the  inner  layers. 

Spermoderm.  i.  The  Outer  Epidermis  of  polygonal  cells  with  dis- 
tinct outline  and  colorless  contents  is  clearly  seen  in  surface  mounts  or 
cross  section. 

2.  Hypoderm.     Two    or   three    cell  layers    similar   to    the  epidermis 
form  the  next  coat. 

3.  Brown  Cells  make  up  the  compressed  inner  tissues. 
Endosperm.       One   to   three    layers    of   typical    aleurone    cells   are 

closely  united  with  the  embryo. 

Embryo.  Hanausek  first  observed  that  the  cells  of  the  embryo 
contain  spherical  aleurone  grains  16-30  jj.  in  diameter,  with  rounded  glo- 
boids  embedded  in  a  yellowish  granular  ground  substance. 

These  are  clearly  seen  on  mounting  in  alcohol  sections  previously 
extracted  with  ether.  In  water  the  ground  substance  gradually  dis- 
integrates, liberating  the  globoids.  Hanausek  states  that  minute  granules 
of  starch  are  also  liberated,  but  these  are  not  commonly  evident. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Hazelnut  Meal  prepared  from  the  kernel  without  removal  of  the 
fat  has  been  used  in  conjunction  with  wheat  and  rye  flour  for  bread- 
making.1  This  product  consists  chiefly  of  embryo  tissues  with  the  char- 
acteristic yellow,  globular  aleurone  grains  from  which  the  rounded 
globoids  gradually  separate  on  the  addition  of  water.  -  Fragments  of  the 
spermoderm  are  also  present. 

Hazelnut  Cake.  Meager  details  are  available  as  to  this  product, 
although  considerable  quantities  must  be  obtained  in  the  manufacture 
of  hazelnut  oil.  Its  microscopic  characters  are  the  same  as  of  the  unex- 
tracted  kernel. 

Ground  Hazelnut  Shells  have  been  detected  by  Malfatti,  Micko,  T.  F. 

1  Plagge  and  Lebbin:  Veroffentlichungen  auf  dem  Gebiete  des  Militar-Sanitatswesens 
1897,  12,  193- 


3i2  NUTS. 

Hanausek,  Mansfeld,  and  others  as  an  adulterant  of  cinnamon.  The 
elements  (Fig.  249)  are  the  epicarp  cells  interspersed  with  hairs  or  hair 
scars,  the  colorless  stone  cells  of  the  woody  portion  of  the  pericarp, 
and  the  brown  obliterated  tissues  of  the  inner  pericarp.  The  hairs  are 
characterized  by  their  thick  walls,  narrow  lumen  and  the  yellow  color 
produced  on  addition  of  alkali.  Among  the  stone  cells  are  isodiametric 
forms  of  various  sizes  from  the  outer  layers,  readily  separating  from  one 
another  on  grinding,  elongated  forms  from  the  middle  layers,  and  large 
cells  with  thick  walls  and  broad  lumen  from  the  inner  layers. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:    Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16);  Villiers  et  Collin 
(42);  Vogl(45). 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F. :   Ueber  den  hystologischen  Bau  der  Haselnusschalen.     Ztschr.  allg. 

osterr.  Apoth.-Ver.  1892,  30,  61. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:     Ueber   einige,    gegenwartig   im   Wiener   Handel   vorkommende 

Gewiirzfalschungen.     Ztschr.    Nahr.-Unters.    Hyg.    1894,   8,    95. 
MALFATTI:    Eine  neue  Verfalschung  des  Zimmtpulvers.      Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg. 

1891,  5,  133. 
MICKO:  Haselnusschalen  als  Verfalschungsmittel  der  Gewurze.     Ztschr.  allg.  osterr. 

Apoth.-Ver.  1892,  30,  42. 


MISCELLANEOUS    NUTS. 

BRAZIL-NUT. 

The  Brazil-nut,  also  known  as  the  Para-nut  from  the  port  of  ship- 
ment, and  incorrectly  as  the  castanea-nut,  is  the  seed  of  a  large  tree 
(Bertholletia  excelsa  Humb.  et  Bpl.  order  Myrtacea)  growing  in  for- 
ests on  the  banks  of  the  Amazon  and  Rio  Negro  Rivers.  Another  species, 
B.  nobilis  Miers.,  also  yields  a  similar  nut. 

The  fruit  is  spherical,  about  the  size  of  a  cocoanut,  which  it  further 
resembles  in  having  a  hard  endocarp.  The  ovary  is  four-celled,  each 
containing  numerous  ovules  borne  on  a  central  placenfa  in  two  rows; 
but  on  ripening  the  partitions  disappear.  At  maturity  the  seeds  are 
usually  three-sided,  resembling  the  segments  of  a  small  orange.  On 
the  surface  they  are  transversely  roughened  and  of  a  dark  gray  color. 
The  hard  shell-like  spermoderm,  as  seen  in  section,  has  an  outer  coat 
i  mm.  or  less  thick  of  a  light  color,  and  an  inner  coat,  of  softer  dark-brown 
tissue  with  a  glossy  inner  surface.  Running  through  the  inner  coat  in 


BRAZIL-NUT.  313 

the  angles  is  a  hard  tissue,  triangular  in  cross  section,  with  broad  bands 
of  vascular  elements  on  the  inner  side  through  which  the  tissues  readily 
separate.  On  carefully  cutting  away  the  inner  tissues,  it  may  be  seen 
that  the  vascular  elements  forming  the  band  in  the  straight  edge  belong 
to  the  raphe,  the  delicate  lateral  ramifications  being  directed  upward 
or  transversely,  while  those  in  the  two  curved  edges  proceed  from  the 
chalaza  with  lateral  ramifications  directed  downward.  The  homoge- 
neous flesh  of  the  nut  consists  entirely  of  radicle. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm.  Transverse  sections  should  be  cut  through  the  shell 
at  the  angles  and  through  the  tissues  half  way  between  the  angles.  Radial 
longitudinal  sections  at  the  angles  and  tangential  sections  through  the 
epidermis  and  the  band-like  tissues  of  the  raphe  and  its  branches  are 
also  instructive. 

1.  Palisade    Cells.     The    epidermis  consists    of    greatly    elongated, 
sclerenchyma  cells  arranged  perpendicularly  to  the  surface,  forming  a 
palisade  layer  0.5-1  mm.  thick.     These  remarkable  cells  have  narrow 
branching  cavities  and  thick  colorless  walls,  except  at  the  extreme  outer 
end,  where  the  cavity  is  broad.     In  tangential  section  they  are  poly- 
gonal, varying  up  to  50  /JL  in  diameter. 

2.  Outer  Brown   Tissue.     This  is  a  spongy  parenchyma  with  small 
cells  containing  a  deep  brown  substance  responding  to  the  tests  for  tan- 
nin.    On  the  sides  of  the  seeds  it  passes  directly  into  the  inner  brown 
tissue. 

3.  Stone  Cells.     At  the  angles  these  cells  form  a  hard  tissue,  broadly 
triangular  in  cross  section,  extending  the  entire  length  of  the  seed.     The 
cells  are  for  the  most  part  isodiametric,  reaching  a  maximum  diameter 
of  100  //.     The  transition  to  brown  tissue  in  the  outer  layers  is  gradual, 
the  intermediate  tissues  being  composed  of  stone  cells  interspersed  with 
parenchyma  elements.     The  stone  cells  have  colorless  walls  of  medium 
thickness  and  brown  contents,  and  are  conspicuous  both  in  sections  and 
in  the  powdered  shells.     In  the  inner  layers  the  cells  are  longitudinally 
elongated. 

4.  Fibro-vascular   Bundles.     The    thin    broad    bands    on   the   inner ' 
surface  of  the  stone-cell  tissue  forming  in  the  straight  edge  the  raphe,  and 
in  the  curved  edges  the  branches  of  the  raphe,  contain  numerous  small 
spiral    vessels.     As    the    inner   spermoderm    separates    from    the    outer 
through  this  tissue,  tangential  sections  are  easily  prepared. 


SI4  NUTS. 

5.  Inner  Brown  Tissue.  The  cells  in  the  inner  layers  are  larger  than 
those  of  the  outer  layers  and  form  a  closer  tissue. 

Endosperm.  After  removing  the  shell,  the  meat  of  the  nut,  con- 
sisting entirely  of  radicle,  is  in  perfect  condition  for  sectioning  either 
with  a  razor  or  a  microtome.  In  cross  sections  we  note  that  the  cells 
in  the  first  two  or  three  layers  are  sharply  differentiated  from  those 
further  inward,  suggesting  that  they  may  not  belong  to  the  embryo  at 
all,  but  are  endosperm  or  less  probably  perisperm. 

Embryo.  Next  follow  8-15  layers  of  thin-walled,  circular  cells 
30-60  fj>  in  diameter  in  loose  contact.  A  layer  of  narrow  longitudinally- 
elongated  cells  forms  a  distinct  ring  separating  the  outer  from  the  inner 
layers.  A  uniform  tissue  of  round  cells  varying  up  to  100  /*  in  diameter 
makes  up  the  inner  portion  of  the  meat.  All  the  cells  of  the  embryo 
contain  aleurone  grains,  of  which  the  solitary  grains,  often  30  ft  in  diam- 
eter, each  with  a  large  crystalloid  and  an  irregular  globoid  mass,  are 
especially  noticeable.  Because  of  these  grains  which  are  among  the 
most  striking  proteid  bodies  found  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  the  nut  is 
often  used  in  laboratories  as  a  material  for  study. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  Meat  or  Embryo  is  used  whole  or  broken  in  confectionery.  In 
sections  mounted  in  turpentine  the  large  aleurone  grains  are  the  notice- 
able elements.  Fragments  of  the  brown  inner  spermoderm  are  often 
attached  to  the  outer  surface. 

The  Cake  remaining  after  expressing  the  oil  contains  the  elements 
already  noted. 

Shells  of  the  Brazil-nut  have  been  ground  for  adulterating  spices. 
This  material  is  identified  by  the  following  characters:  (i)  the  colorless, 
sclerenchyma  palisade  cells  of  the  spermoderm  which  occur  in  groups  of 
more  or  less  rectangular  form;  (2)  the  deep-brown  parenchyma;  (3) 
the  isodiametric  stone  cells  with  colorless  walls  and  often  with  deep- 
brown  contents. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:    Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16);    Tschirch  (39). 
HOFMEISTER:    Pflanzenzelle.  1867,  178. 
MILLARDET:  Ann.  Sc.  nat.  iv  ser.  34. 


PIS  TACHIO-NUT.  3 1 5 


PISTACHIO-NUT. 

The  pistachio  tree  (Pistacia  vera  L.  order  Anacardiacece) ,  was  culti- 
vated in  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt  in  the  days  of  Joseph,  and  was  introduced 
from  these  countries  into  Greece  and  Rome  at  an  early  period.  Its 
culture  is  still  limited  largely  to  the  Mediterranean  region. 

The  fruit  is  a  dry  drupe  with  an  oily  seed,  which,  freed  from  the  peri- 
carp, is  known  in  commerce  as  the  pistachio-nut  or  green  almond,  and 
is  extensively  used  in  pastries  and  confectionery.  The  seed  is  elongated, 
10-25  mm-  l°ng'  witn  a  pronounced  ridge  on  the  dorsal  side  and  a  shal- 
low depression  on  the  ventral  side  near  the  base.  The  lower  portion  is 
flattened  from  front  to  back,  while  the  upper  portion  is  flattened  in  a 
plane  at  right  angles  to  the  last.  After  soaking  or  boiling  in  water,  the 
spermoderm  and  endosperm  may  be  separated  as  a  thin  skin  from  the 
embryo.  On  the  dorsal  side,  where  it  is  also  thickest,  the  spermoderm 
is  dark  purple,  on  the  ventral  side,  green.  Closely  attached  to  the 
spermoderm  is  the  colorless,  silky-lustrous  endosperm.  The  embryo 
consists  of  large  cotyledons  of  a  green  color  attached  to  a  radicle  sit- 
uated directly  beneath  the  dorsal  ridge. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  Spermoderm,  together  with  the  endosperm,  is  sectioned  without 
separation  from  the  embryo. 

1.  Outer  Epidermis.    The  cells  are  polygonal,  30-60  /z  in  diameter, 
and  have  faintly  beaded  walls. 

2.  The  Middle  Spermoderm  consists  of  thin-walled  cells  and  fibro- vas- 
cular bundles.     On  the  ventral  side  only   a  few  cell  layers  are  present, 
but  on  the  dorsal  side,  eight  or  more  layers.      The  cells    on  the  dorsal 
side,  not  only  of  the  middle  layers  but  also  of  the  epidermis,  contain  a 
water-soluble  substance  of  a  carmine   or  brown  color  which   becomes 
green  with  alkali,  but  is  not  altered  by  chloral. 

3.  The  Inner  Epidermis  on  the  dorsal  side  is   also  of  thin-walled, 
inconspicuous  elements,  but  on  other  parts  is  an  exceedingly  character- 
istic tissue  of  small,  distinctly  porous  cells.     As  seen  in  surface  view, 
the  cells  are  7-15  //  in  diameter,  sharply  polygonal,  with  beaded  walls. 
Cross  sections   show  that   some  of  the  cells  are  divided  by  tangential 
partitions.      This   layer  is   here   tentatively   classed   with    the  spermo- 
derm, although  further  investigation  may  show  it  to  be  perisperm. 


3l6  NUTS. 

f 

Endosperm.  The  outer  endosperm  consists  of  a  variable  number  of 
layers  of  typical  aleurone  cells,  the  inner  layers  of  more  or  less  obliterated 
cells  forming  a  hyaline  membrane. 

Embryo.  The  green  color  of  the  tissues  is  more  apparent  to  the 
naked  eye  than  under  the  microscope.  The  thin-walled  cells  contain 
spherical  aleurone  grains,  most  of  which  are  small  (3-5  /*),  some  however 
larger  (8-14^). 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Pistachio-nuts,  whether  whole  or  chopped,  are  recognized  (i)  by  the 
carmine  or  brown  coloring  matter  in  the  spermoderm  becoming  green 
with  alkali,  and  (2)  by  the  exceedingly  small  but  distinctly  porous  cells 
of  the  inner  epidermis. 

Almonds  and  other  nuts  dyed  with  coal-tar  colors  are  sometimes 
substituted  for  genuine  pistachio-nuts.  In  a  suspected  sample,  foreign 
tissues  should  be  searched  for  under  the  microscope,  and  tests  made 
for  foreign  dyes. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16);  Planchon  et  Collin 
(34);  Vogl(43). 

PINE-NUT. 

The  seed  kernels  or  "  nuts  "  of  several  species  of  pine,  notably  the 
stone  pine  of  Italy  (Pinus  Pinea  L.  order  Abietinece),  and  the  Cembra  or 
Swiss  pine  (P.  Cembra  L.),  including  the  Siberian  variety  (var.  Siberica), 
are  highly  prized  for  their  delicate  resinous  flavor. 

As  found  on  the  market,  the  kernels,  consisting  of  the  endosperm 
and  embryo  entirely  free  of  spermoderm,  are  narrow,  elongated,  1-1.5  cm- 
long,  smooth,  and  of  an  ivory-white  color.  After  boiling  with  water, 
the  elongated  embryo  embedded  in  the  axis  of  the  endosperm,  may  be 
easily  separated.  It  consists  of  twelve  needle-shaped  cotyledons  5-7  mm. 
long  and  a  radicle  of  about  the  same  length. 

HISTOLOGY. 

In  microscopic  structure  both  the  endosperm  and  the  embryo  en- 
tirely lack  characteristic  elements.  The  thin-walled,  for  the  most  part 
isodiametric  cells  contain  fat  and  rounded  aleurone  grains  usually  3-5  /£, 
less  often  10-12  //,  in  diameter. 


PART  VI. 

FRUIT  AND   FRUIT  PRODUCTS. 


FRUIT. 

Fruit,  in  the  common  acceptance  of  the  term,  includes  such  succulent 
fruits  as  are  suited  for  table  use.  Dry  fruits  (cereals,  buckwheats, 
pepper,  anise,  cocoanut,  etc.),  some  known  as  seeds,  others  as  nuts,  are 
described  elsewhere  in  this  work. 

Only  those  fruits  used  for  the  preparation  of  preserves,  jams,  and 
other  commercial  products  are  here  considered. 

Fruit  Products. 

The  products  of  pomes,  drupes,  berries  and  other  succulent  fruits 
include  dried  and  candied  fruits,  jams,  marmalades,  preserves,  jellies, 
sauces,  and  catsups.  Of  these  some  contain  all  the  histological  ele- 
ments of  the  fruits,  including  the  seed  tissues,  others  only  the  elements 
of  the  fruit  flesh,  and  others  still  no  cellular  matter  whatever,  or  only 
traces. 

Dried  Fruits  are  prepared  from  the  whole  fruit  in  the  case  of  figs, 
dates,  raisins,  Xanti  currants,  prunes,  and  various  berries;  from  the 
fruits  freed  from  stones  in  the  case  of  peaches,  apricots  and  cherries; 
and  from  the  pared  and  cored  fruits,  in  the  case  of  apples  and  pears. 
Substitution  of  cheaper  fruits  is  not  often  practiced,  as  the  macroscopic 
characters  and  taste  of  most  of  the  products  cannot  be  successfully  imitated. 
The  most  objectionable  practice  is  the  bleaching  with  sulphur  or  "sul- 
phuring "  of  peaches,  apples,  apricots,  pears,  and  similar  fruits  that  show 
a  tendency  to  turn  brown  on  drying. 

Jams,  Marmalades,  and  Other  Preserves,  like  dried  fruits,  are  pre- 
pared either  from  the  whole  fruit  or  the  fruit  flesh.  After  addition  of 
sugar  the  mixture  is  boiled  down  to  the  proper  consistency. 

The  common  adulterants  may  be  classified  as  follows: 

i.  Foreign  Pulp  and  Gelatinous  Material.  Under  this  head  may  be 
included  the  pulp  of  turnips,  beets,  apples  and  figs ;  the  residues  or  pomace 
obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  fruit  juices  and  jellies;  also  starch-paste, 
gelatin,  agar-agar,  and  other  vegetable  materials  used  to  give  "  body  " 
to  fraudulent  mixture. 

319 


320  FRUIT. 

It  is  stated  on  creditable  authority  that  artificial  raspberry  jam  has 
been  made  in  America-  in  which  grass  seed  took  the  place  of  fruit  seeds. 
Another  fraud,  more  difficult  of  detection,  consists  in  mixing  the  residues 
from  the  manufacture  of  fruit  juices  or  jellies  with  water,  gelatinous 
materials,  dyes  and  flavoring  substances. 

2.  Sweeteners  other  than  cane-sugar   include  glucose  sirup  and  also 
chemical  sweeteners,  such  as  saccharine,  dulcin,  etc. 

3.  Dyes.     Cochineal,  cudbear,  and  various  vegetable  dyes,  formerly 
employed  in  food  products,  are  now  largely  replaced  by  dyes  of  coal- 

»tar  origin. 

4.  Artificial  Flavors.     These  are  mixtures  of  ethers,  such    as  ethyl 
acetate,  ethyl  butyrate,  amyl  butyrate,  etc.,  prepared  in  imitation  of  the 
real  fruit  flavors.     Banana  and  pineapple  flavors  are  quite  closely  imi- 
tated,  but  the  imitations  of  strawberry  and  raspberry  flavors  are  sicken- 
ing mixtures,  with  little  resemblance  to  the  genuine. 

5.  Vegetable  Acids.     Citric  and  tartaric  acids  are  employed  to  give 
artificial  fruit  products  the  requisite   acidity,  also  to  bring  out  the  flavor 
of  certain  mild-flavored  fruits. 

6.  Chemical  Preservatives.     Formerly  salicylic  acid  was  the  common 
preservative  of  fruit  products,  but  recently,  at  least  in  America,  sodium 
benzoate  has  largely  taken  its  place.     Saccharine  may  also  be  classed 
under  this  head,  as  it  is  not  only  a  sweetener  but  also  a  preservative. 

Fruit  Juices  and  Jellies,  being  strained  products,  are  usually  quite 
free  from  seeds,  skins  and  pulp  cells,  although  small  fragments  of  tissues 
may  sometimes  be  found  on  careful  search. 

The  adulterants  are  the  same  as  are  used  in  preserves,  excepting  the 
pulp  of  fruits  and  vegetables. 

Tomato  Catsup,  a  popular  sauce  in  America,  consists  of  tomato  pulp 
freed  from  seeds,  mixed  with  spices  and  vinegar.  It  is  adulterated  with 
foreign  pulp,  notably  that  of  the  pumpkin,  coal-tar  and  other  dyes,  and 
chemical  preservatives. 

Chili  Sauce  is  made  from  tomatoes,  peppers,'  spices  and  vinegar.  It 
is  not  usually  strained,  and  therefore  contains  seeds  of  both  the  tomatoes 
and  the  peppers.  The  adulterants  are  the  same  as  of  tomato  catsup. 

METHODS  OF  EXAMINATION. 

Preliminary  Examination.  Seeds,  styles,  fragments  of  skin,  and 
other  tissues  are  picked  out  either  from  the  original  material,  the  residue 
after  washing  on  a  sieve,  or  the  deposit  that  settles  after  dilution  and 


FRUIT  PRODUCTS. 


321 


shaking.     These  may  often  be  identified  by  the  macroscopic  characters, 
but  in  doubtful  cases  should  be  examined  under  the  microscope. 

Artificial  flavors  imitating  strawberry,  raspberry,  and  some  other 
fruit  flavors,  are  recognized  by  their  characteristic  odor  and  taste,  which 
are  quite  different  from  those  of  the  real  fruits.  Apple  jelly  also  has  a 
more  or  less  characteristic  odor,  which  is  especially  marked  on  heating  the 


FlG.  250.  ^  Common  Diatoms,  a  Surirella  spkndida;  b  Meridian  circulare;  c  Nitzschia 
linearis;  d  Nitzschia  acicularis;  e  Epithemia  Zebra;  f  Tabellaria  fenestrata;  g  Symedra 
Ulna;  h  Gomphonema  acuminatum;  i  Rhoicosphenia  curvata;  k  Cocconema  Cistula; 
I  Namcula  Stauroptera;  m  Stauroneis  Phoenicentron.  (Msz.) 

product.  Sulphites  or  glucose  containing  sulphites,  if  used  in  consider- 
able amount,  impart  a  disagreeable  sulphurous  taste. 

Chemical  Examination.  Methods  for  the  detection  of  starch -paste, 
gelatin,  glucose,  dyes,  preservatives,  etc.,  are  described  in  the  works  on  the 
chemical  analysis  of  foods  named  on  page  5. 

Microscopic  Examination.  Direct  examination  is  made  both  of  the 
original  material  and  of  the  seeds,  styles,  skin,  fibro-vascular  bundles,  etc., 
separated  by  washing  on  a  sieve  or  by  allowing  the  diluted  material  to  settle. 
Jams  and  similar  saccharine  products  can  be  mounted  without  dilution, 


322  FRUIT. 

the  gelatinous  portion  of  the  material  forming  a  suitable  medium  in  which 
to  examine  the  solid  fragments.  Owing  to  the  heating  with  sugar  sirup 
in  the  process  of  manufacture,  as  well  as  to  the  absence  of  starch  grains, 
fat  and  similar  interfering  substances,  the  tissues  are  beautifully  distinct 
and  treatment  with  clearing  reagents  is  usually  quite  unnecessary.  Seeds 
may  be  broken  up  on  the  slide,  or  may  be  held  in  a  hand-vice  or  between 
pieces  of  soft  wood  and  sectioned  with  a  razor. 

Agar-agar.  Marpmann  boils  the  jelly  with  5  per  cent  sulphuric  acid, 
adds  a  few  crystals  of  potassium  permanganate  and  allows  to  settle.  If 
microscopic  examination  of  the  sediment  discloses  diatoms,  agar-agar  is 
probably  present. 

Schimper  heats  the  jelly  on  a  piece  of  platinum  foil  and  examines  the 
residue  in  a  drop  of  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  for  diatoms  (Fig.  250).  If, 
however,  only  small  amounts  of  agar-agar  are  present  he  recommends 
Marpmann's  method. 

Lagerheim  calls  attention  to  the  presence  of  characteristic  fibrous 
bodies,  pointed  at  one  end,  which  are  always  present  in  agar-agar  and  are 
readily  identified. 

Lagerheim' s  Test  for  Benzole  Acid.  Place  a  portion  of  the  material 
on  a  watch-glass  and  cover  with  a  glass  plate;  heat  to  boiling,  allowing  the 
steam  to  condense  on  the  plate.  Remove  the  latter  while  still  hot,  allow 
the  drops  of  liquid  to  evaporate  and  examine  the  residue  under  the  micro- 
scope. If  benzoic  acid  is  present,  branching  crystalline  deposits,  resem- 
bling frost  on  the  window-pane,  are  evident.  As  stated  by  Lagerheim,  this 
test  is  so  delicate  as  to  permit  the  detection  of  the  small  amounts  of  benzoic 
acid  naturally  present  in  cranberries. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

LAGERHEIM:  Om  den  mikroskopiska  undersokningen  af  marmelad.    Svensk  Farm. 

Tidsk.  1901,  5. 
LAGERHEIM:     Kralitativ    bestanining    af    benzoesyra    och   salicylsyra   i    narings-och 

njutningsmedel  genom  direkt  sublimering.     Svensk  Farm.  Tidsk.  1903,  7. 
MARPMANN:    Beitrage  zur  mikroskopischen    Untersuchung    der    Fruchtmarmeladen. 

Ztschr.  angew.  Mikros.  1896,  2,  97. 
ME'NIER:  Falsification  de  la  gelee  de  groseille  du  commerce  decouverte  par  les  Diatomees. 

Nantes.  1879. 
SCHIMPER:    Anleitung  zur  mikrosk.  Unters.  der  veg.  Nahr.-u.  Genussm.    Jena,  1900, 

146. 
WINTON:  Beitrage  zur  Anatomic  des  Beerenobsten.  Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-  u.  Genussm. 

1902,  5,  785.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1902,  288. 


APPLE.  323 

ROSACEOUS    FRUITS    (Rosacea}. 

Most  of  the  important  tree  fruits  and  several  of  the  bush  fruits  belong 
to  this  family.  They  are  grouped  under  three  subfamilies,  each  with 
quite  distinct  characters. 

1.  Pomes  (Apple,  Pear,  Quince).     The  five  carpels  are  united  into  a 
fleshy  fruit,  bearing  the  remains  of  the  calyx  teeth  in  a  depression  at  the  end. 
The  morphology  of  pomes  has  long  been  a  subject  for  dispute,  some  botan- 
ists asserting  that  the  outer  fruit  flesh  is  calyx  tube,  others  that  it  is  recepta- 
cle.    At  present  the  preponderance  of  evidence  favors  the  latter  theory. 

The  epicarp  of  the  quince  is  hairy,  and  the  mesocarp  of  the  pear  and 
quince  contains  groups  of  stone  cells.  In  all  the  drupes  the  cartilaginous 
endocarp  of  each  of  the  five  locules  is  made  up  of  sclerenchyma  cells.  The 
seed  is  quite  complicated  in  structure,  consisting  of  a  spermoderm  of  5-6 
more  or  less  characteristic  layers,  a  thin  perisperm,  an  endosperm  of  a 
few  layers  of  aleurone  cells,  and  a  bulky  embryo. 

2.  Drupes    (Almond,    Peach,   Apricot,    Plum,    Cherry).    The    most 
striking  characteristic  is  the  thick,  hard  endocarp  or  stone.     Only  one  of 
the  two  ovules  usually  matures.    The  spermoderm  usually  consists  of 
four  layers,  of  which  the  epidermis  is  characterized  by  groups  of  thin- 
walled  stone  cells.    The  perisperm,  endosperm  and  embryo  are  similar 
to  those  of  pomes. 

3.  Other  Rosaceous  Fruits.    The  raspberry  and  blackberry  are  mul- 
;iple  drupes,  the  small  individual  fruits  agreeing  in  general  structure  with 
:he  true  drupes.     The  succulent  part  of  the  strawberry  is  a  receptacle,  on 
'Vhich  are  diminutive  achenes. 

APPLE. 

The  apple  is  not  only  the  leading  table  and  culinary  fruit  of  the  tern- 
Derate  zone,  but  in  addition  ranks  next  to  the  grape  for  the  production 
)f  fermented  liquors. 

It  is  a  native  of  eastern  Europe  and  southwestern  Asia,  and  has  been 
:ultivated  since  prehistoric  times  in  the  Old  World,  and  since  colonial 
imes  in  America  and  Australia.  The  common  species  (Pyrus  Mains 
L,.)  includes  many  varieties,  differing  greatly  in  size,  shape,  color  of  skin 
ind  flesh,  texture,  flavor,  acidity,  and  keeping  qualities. 

Notwithstanding  the  variations  in  shape,  all  apples  have  a  depression 
it  one  end,  in  which  are  borne  the  withered  calyx  teeth,  and  another 


324  FRUIT. 

more  pronounced  at  the  other  end,  in  which  is  inserted  the  woody  stem. 
The  skin  is  tough  and  closely  adherent  to  the  fruit  flesh.  In  the  recep- 
tacle or  outer  fruit  flesh  are  embedded  the  five  wedge-shaped  carpels, 
which  are  also  fleshy,  except  for  the  cartilaginous  endocarp  lining  the 
cavities.  At  full  maturity  an  axial  cavity  appears  in  the  fruit  and  the 
endocarps  split  on  their  inner  edges,  thus  opening  communication  between 
the  cell  cavities  and  the  axial  cavity.  Each  cell  contains  two  brown, 
flattened  obovoid  seeds. 

The  crab-apple  (P.  baccata  L.)  is  the  only  other  species  cultivated  to 
any  considerable  extent  for  fruit.  In  this  species  the  fruit  is  small,  seldom 
exceeding  40  mm.  in  diameter,  and  is  useful  only  for  cooking.  The 
calyx  teeth  drop  before  the  fruit  reaches  maturity. 

HISTOLOGY.1 

Fresh  ripe  apples,  either  hardened  in  alcohol  or  without  special  treat- 
ment, supply  material  for  preparing  sections  of  both  the  fruit  itself  and 
the  seeds. 

Receptacle  and  Pericarp,  i.  Epidermis.  The  cells  of  the  epidermis 
have  a  cuticle  12-15  /*  thick.  In  surface  view,  the  thick-walled  mother 
cells,  divided  by  much  thinner  walls  into  2-5  more  or  less  quadrilateral 
daughter  cells,  remind  us  of  windows,  hence  the  name  "window  cells." 
The  daughter  cells  range  from  15 — 50  /*  in  diameter,  being  about  twice 
as  large  as  in  the  pear.  In  the  calyx  and  stem  depression,  the  walls 
throughout  are  of  more  uniform  thickness.  Here  also,  particularly  in 
the  calyx  depression,  are  found  long,  thin-walled,  strap-shaped,  pointed 
hairs.  The  contents  of  the  cells  are  brown  granular  masses,  occasional 
chlorophyl  grains  and,  in  the  case  of  colored  apples,  reddish  or  violet 
coloring  matter  in  solution,  which  becomes  greenish  with  iron  salts,  and 
blue-green  with  alkalies  changing  back  to  its  original  color  with  acids. 

2.  Hypoderm.     Two  to  three  layers  of  rather  small,  more  or  less 
porous  cells  underlie  the  epidermis.     As  appears  in  cross  section,  they 
are  tangentially  elongated,  and  the  walls  are  collenchymatously  thickened. 
Starch  grains  5-14  /i  long  and  4-10  //  broad,  the  larger  grains  with  elon- 
gated hilum,  the  smaller  often  in  twins,  triplets,  or  larger  aggregates,  are 
sometimes  found  in  the  larger  cells.     In  highly  colored  apples,  the  cells 
contain  coloring  material  in  solution. 

3.  Fruit  Flesh.    A  loose  parenchyma  of  large,  thin-walled  cells  with 
indistinct  contents  makes  up  the  bulk  of  the  fruit  flesh.     When  the  fruit 

1  Based  on  the  investigations  of  Malfatti,  supplemented  by  observations  of  the  writer. 


APPLE.  325 

is  fully  ripe  these  cells  are  easily  separated  from  one  another  by  pressing 
with  a  cover-glass,  appearing  like  rounded,  somewhat  elongated,  col- 
lapsed sacs. 

On  cutting  an  apple  transversely  into  halves,  we  note  an  indistinct 
line  of  demarcation  between  the  fruit  flesh  of  the  receptacle  and  that  of 
the  five  united  carpels.  The  structure  of  the  fruit  flesh  is  much  the 
same  in  both  receptacle  and  mesocarp.  In  the  two  or  three  'layers 
adjoining  the  endocarp,  the  cells  are  small,  elongated  in  various  tan- 
gential directions,  and  contain  occasional  oxalate  crystals. 

4.  Endocarp.  The  parchment-like  endocarp  consists  of  3-4  layers  of 
thick- walled,  sclerenchyma  fibers,  and  elongated  cells,  extended  in  vari- 
ous directions  parallel  to  the  inner  surface,  forming  a  tissue  similar 
to  that  found  in  the  endocarp  of  coffee.  Rows  of  thin-walled  crystal- 
cells  are  distributed  among  the  fibres.  Pores  are  distinct  in  the  outer 
layers",  indistinct  in  the  inner.  In  the  cleft  formed  by  the  splitting  of 
the  ripe  carpels  at  the  sutures,  parenchyma  cells,  and  curious,  jointed, 
branching  warty  hairs  (Fig.  251)  often  make  their  appearance.  Some 


FIG.  251.     Apple  (Pyrus  Malus).     Hairs  from  suture  of  endocarp.     (MALFATTL) 

of  the  individual  cells  of  the  hairs,  particularly  the  terminal  ones,  are 
sclerenchymatized,  thus  furnishing  a  distinction  from  the  similar  hairs  of 
the  pear.  These  outgrowths  are  highly  characteristic,  but,  unfortunately, 
are  not  always  present. 

Spermoderm.  Sections  should  be  examined  directly  in  glycerine,  and 
in  water,  also,  for  the  study  of  the  inner  spermoderm,  after  treatment 
with  Javelle  water  and  staining.  Surface  preparations  mounted  in  chlor- 
zinc  iodine  are  instructive. 

i.  The  Outer  Epidermis  is  first  studied  in  cross  sections  mounted  in 
glycerine.  The  radial  and  especially  the  outer  walls  are  greatly  thickened 


326  FRUIT. 

and  show  a  laminated  structure.  What  appear  like  minute  warts  on  the 
inner  surface  of  the  outer  walls  are  but  the  sections  of  the  ritts  forming  the 
reticulations  seen  in  surface  view.  The  inner  lamellae  are  mucilaginous 
and  swell  greatly  on  addition  of  water.  Surface  sections  show  that  the 
cells  are  thick- walled,  longitudinally  elongated,  and  conspicuously  marked 
by  coarse  spiral  reticulations. 

2.  Hypodermal  Fibers  longitudinally  arranged,  with  greatly  thickened 
brown  walls,  form  6-10  layers,  or  about  half  the  thickness  of  the  spermo- 
derm.     In  the  debris  obtained  by  scraping,  they  are  distinguished  by 
their  slender,  tapering  form  and  thick,  brown  walls. 

3.  Tube  Cells.    Adjoining  the  last  is  a  loose  tissue  of  2-3  layers  of 
longitudinally  elongated,   rather  thin-walled,   blunt  cells  in  interrupted 
contact,  resembling  the  tube-cells  of  cereals.     The  cells  are  further  dis- 
tinguished from  the  hypodermal  fibers  by  their  greater  breadth.     Diagonal 
markings  are  evident  after  bleaching  and  staining.     In  parts  the  tissue  is 
a  typical  spongy  parenchyma.     A  brown  substance  with  the  reactions 
of  tannin  impregnates  the  walls  and  partially  fills  the  cells. 

4.  Cross  Cells.    The    next    layer   resembles    the    preceding,  but    the 
transversely  elongated  elements  are  narrower,  and  in  closer  contact. 

5.  Starch  Cells.    A   single   cell   layer  of   colorless,  exceedingly   thin- 
walled  cross  cells  contains  minute  starch  grains.    Were  it  not  for  these 
grains  the  layer  would  hardly  be  noticeable. 

6.  Inner  Epidermis.    These  cells  are  also  transversely  elongated,  but 
only  moderately  so,  and  are  further  distinguished  from  those  of  the  pre- 
ceding layers  by  their  polygonal  form  and  the  absence  of  intercellular 
spaces.    They  are  impregnated  with  a  brown  substance. 

Perisperm.  On  cutting  open  a  seed,  a  colorless  skin  may  be  found 
between  the  thick  brown  spermoderm  and  the  embryo.  This  consists  of 
perisperm  and  endosperm. 

A  hyaline  membrane,  in  section  3-6  /*  thick,  apparently  structureless, 
separates  the  spermoderm  from  the  endosperm.  It  is  stained  a  deep 
yellow  with  chlorzinc  iodine,  whereas  the  adjoining  tissues  are  stained 
blue.  After  this  treatment  a  delicate,  cellular  network'is  distinguishable 
in  surface  view.  The  remainder  of  the  perisperm  is  a  colorless,  obliterated 
tissue,  with  only  slight  indications  of  cellular  structure. 

Endosperm,  i.  Aleurone  Cells  form  the  outer  layers.  These  are  color- 
less, rather  thick-walled,  in  surface  view  polygonal,  and  contain  aleurone- 
grains  and  fat. 

2.  Obliterated  Cells  complete  the  endosperm. 


APPLE.  327 

The  Embryo  consists  of  two  oval  cotyledons  and  a  relatively  small 
radicle.  The  cells  are  thin- walled;  the  contents  consist  of  aleurone 
grains  and  fat. 

Stem.  Cork  cells  in  4-6  cell  layers  form  the  outer  zone,  then  4-5 
layers  of  small-celled  collenchyma,  passing  by  degrees  into  the  middle 
bark.  The  bundles  of  very  delicate  cells  are  partly  inclosed  on  the  outer 
sides  by  the  bast-fiber  bundles.  On  the  inner  side  they  adjoin  a  zone 
of  stone  cells,  interrupted  only  by  the  medullary  rays. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Preserves.  Various  products  of  the  apple,  such  as  preserves,  jams, 
jellies,  and  sauces  are  articles  of  commerce.  Apple  jelly  and  apple  pre- 
serves also  serve  as  adulterants  of  more  expensive  fruits,  the  deception 
being  completed  by  the  addition  of  dyes,  artificial  fruit  ethers,  and  even 
grass  seed.  Apples  also  enter  into  the  composition  of  "  mince-meat," 
which  in  America  is  sold  both  moist  and  desiccated  for  making  pies. 

These  products  either  contain  only  the  fruit  flesh  of  the  apple,  the 
tissues  of  which  lack  distinctive  character,  with  traces  of  the  character- 
istic elements  of  the  epidermis,  the  endocarp  and  the  seed,  or  else,  in 
the  case  of  jellies,  no  cellular  structure  whatever.  While  this  lack  of 
characteristic  elements  renders  the  microscopic  identification  of  the 
material  as  an  apple  product  usually  impossible,  it  facilitates  the  detec- 
tion of  materials  with  distinctive  characters. 

Apple  Pomace,  the  residue  from  the  cider-press,  is  used  for  feeding 
cattle  and  for  other  purposes.  It  contains  all  the  histological  elements 
of  the  fruit. 

The  tissues  of  chief  use  in  diagnosis  are  the  epidermis,  the  "  window  " 
cells  of  which  are  larger  than  those  of  the  pear;  the  endocarp  with  thicker- 
walled  fibers  than  in  other  pomes;  the  branching,  multicellular,  warty 
hairs  from  the  suture,  which,  except  for  the  sclerenchyma  elements,  are 
much  the  same  as  the  corresponding  hairs  of  the  pear;  the  longitudinally 
elongated,  reticulated,  thick-walled  epidermal  cells  of  the  spermoderm, 
which  differ  markedly  from  the  isodiametric  cells  of  the  pear  and  quince; 
and  finally  the  tissues  of  the  stem.  Products  of  the  ripe  apple  contain 
only  faint  traces  of  starch 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:   Hassall  (19). 

BORDZILOWSKI  :  Ueber  die  Entwicklung  der  beerenartigen  und  fleischigen  Fruchte. 
Arb.  Kiewer  Naturf.  Ges.  1888,  9,  65. 


328  FRUIT. 

HOWARD:  Microscopical  Examinations  of  Fruits  and  Fruit  Products,  U.  S  Dept.  Agr. 

Bur.  Chem.  Bull.  66, 103. 
MALFATTI:  Beitrage  zur  Anatomic  der  Birn- und  Apfelfrucht.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters. 

Hyg.  1896,  10,  265. 

STRASBURGER:  Das  botanische  Practicum. 
STRASBURGER:  Das  kleine  botanische  Practicum. 


PEAR. 

Most  of  the  varieties  of  pear,  including  all  those  cultivated  in  Europe 
and  America  before  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  are  forms 
of  Pyrus  communis  L.,  a  native  of  Europe  and  western  Asia,  although 
a  number  of  the  varieties  now  cultivated  in  America,  including  the  Le  Conte 
and  the  Kieffer,  are  hybrids  with  the  oriental  pear,  P.  Sinensis  Lindl. 

The  pear  differs  from  the  apple  in  form,  having  a  more  or  less  tapering 
stem-end  without  a  depression,  also  in  the  texture  and  flavor  of  the  fruit 
flesh;  but  in  general  morphological  details  the  fruits  are  identical. 

HISTOLOGY.1 

Receptacle  and  Pericarp,  i.  The  Epidermis  (Fig.  252)  consists  of 
"  window  cells  "  like  those  of  the  apple,  but  only  half  as  large  (10-25  /*)• 

They  are  covered  with  a  thick  cuticle, 
which  however  is  ruptured  in  places,  par- 
ticularly about  the  stomata,  with  the  for- 
mation of  cork  cells  beneath.  In  varieties 
with  a  rough  skin,  the  epidermal  cells 
proper  give  place  almost  entirely  to  cork 
tissues.  In  the  calyx  depression  are  thick- 
FIG.  252.  Pear  (Pyrus  communis}.  walled,  pointed  hairs  200-250  /zlong. 

view.    Xi6o.        2    A  Hypoderm  of  3-4  layers  consists 
of    small    tabular    cells    with    moderately 
thickened  walls. 

3.  The  Fruit  Flesh  (Fig.  253),  while  consisting  for  the  most  part  of 
thin-walled,  elongated  or  isodiametric  cells  with  occasional  starch  grains 
(4-5  /*),  is  characterized  by  numerous  clusters  of  strongly  thickened 
stone  cells,  about  which  as  a  center  radiate  elongated  parenchyma  cells. 
The  groups  of  stone  cells  are  largest  (often  over  i  mm.)  and  occur  in  the 
greatest  number  in  the  inner  layers.  The  individuals  are  isodiametric, 
seldom  over  25  ft  in  diameter,  or  slightly  elongated,  and  have  colorless 

1  Based  on  the  investigations  of  Malfatti  supplemented  by  observations  of  the  writer. 


PEAR. 


329 


walls  with  distinctly  branching  pores.  Alkali  colors  them  yellow,  saf- 
ranin,  red,  thus  making  them  evident  in  the  mass  of  parenchymatous 
ground  tissue.  Similar  stone  cells  occur  in  the  quince,  but  are  entirely 
lacking  in  the  apple. 

The  inner  layers  of  the  fruit  flesh  belong  properly  to  the  pericarp. 
The  transition  to  endocarp  is  more  gradual  than  in  the  apple. 

4.  Endocarp.  Fibers  with  walls  thicker  than  the  breadth  of  the 
lumen,  such  as  form  the  dense  endocarp  of  the  apple,  are  here  replaced 
by  elongated  cells  with  broader  cavities  and  less  strongly  thickened  walls. 


FIG.  253.     Pear,     sc  group  of  stone  cells,  with  radiating  parenchyma,  from  the  fruit  flesh; 
e  epicarp.     (VILLIERS  and  COLLIN.) 

We  note  in  surface  view  the  transition  from  large,  isodiametric  paren- 
chyma cells  of  the  fruit  flesh  to  elongated,  but  broad,  thick- walled,  porous 
sclerenchyma  cells,  from  these  to  narrower  and  thinner-walled,  but  dis- 
tinctly porous  fibrous  cells,  and  finally  to  the  non-porous  cells  of  the 
inner  layer.  The  parenchyma  which  forms  in  the  suture  bears  multi- 
cellular,  branching,  warty  hairs  (Fig.  254)  similar  to  those  found  in  the 
apple,  but  lacking  the  thick-walled  members. 

Spennoderm.  i.  Outer  Epidermis.  Since  the  cells  are  isodiametric 
polygonal,  as  seen  in  surface  view,  they  may  be  distinguished  at 
a  glance  from  the  longitudinally  elongated,  conspicuously  reticulated 
cells  of  the  apple.  Viewed  in  cross  section  they  are  prismatic,  upward 
of  50  fi  high.  The  secondary  membrane  is  mucilaginous  in  the  outer 
portion  of  the  cell,  leaving  but  a  narrow  cylindrical  cell  lumen.  In  the 
inner  portion  of  the  cell  this  mucilaginous  wall  is  thinner,  the  cavity 
being  here  bulb-shaped.  The  thin  innermost,  or  tertiary  membrane  of 


33°  FRUIT. 

the  cell-wall  greedily  takes  up  safranin,  thus  bringing  out  very  clearly 
the  cell  cavity,  which,  taken  as  a  whole,  is  flask-shaped. 

2.  Fiber  Layer.  Eight  to  fourteen  layers  of  brown- walled,  strongly 
thickened  fibers  with  brown  contents  form  the  bulk  of  the  spermoderm. 
In  cross  section  they  are  polygonal.  Differentiation  in  the  inner  layers 


FIG.  254.     Pear.     Hairs  from  suture  of  endocarp.     (MALFATTI.) 

into  tube  cells  such  as  occur  in  the  apple',  is  not  noticeable,  the  fibers 
passing  abruptly  into  the  cross  cells  of  the  next  layer. 

3.  Cross  Cells,  4.  Starch  Cells,  and  5.  Inner  Epidermal  Cells,  also 
Perisperm,  Endosperm,  Embryo,  and  Stem  are  much  the  same  as  in 
the  apple. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Pears  are  preserved  and  dried  in  various  ways  for  winter  use.  On 
the  Continent,  fruit  of  inferior  grade,  as  well  as  the  pomace  from  the 
manufacture  of  pear  cider,  is  dried  and  ground  for  the  preparation 
of  various  coffee  substitutes  and  for  adulterating  spices  and  other  food 
products. 

The  elements  of  value  in  distinguishing  pears  from  apples  are  the 
window  cells  (Fig.  252)  of  the  epidermis  (smaller  than  in  the  apple);  the 
groups  of  stone  cells  (Fig.  253)  in  the  fruit  flesh  (absent  in  the  apple); 
the  endocarp  cells  with  broad  lumen  (narrow  in  the  apple);  and  the 
isodiametric  mucilaginous  epidermal  cells  of  the  spermoderm  (longitudi- 


PEAR.     QUINCE.  331 

nally  elongated  and  spirally  reticulated  in  the  apple).  The  warty,  multi- 
cellular  hairs  (Fig.  254)  on  the  sutures  of  the  carpels  are  similar  in  both 
species,  but  those  of  the  pear  lack  thick-walled  members.  Other  con- 
spicuous' elements  common  to  both  fruits  are  the  brown  fibers  and  cross 
cells  of  the  spermoderm,  and  the  elements  of  the  stem. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:    Hanausek,  T.   F.    (10);    Moeller   (29); 
Schimper  (37);  Villiers  et  Collin   (42);   Vogl  (45). 
BAILLON  :  Sur  le  development  des  ovules  des  Pyrus.  Bull.  mens.  de  la  soc.  Linn,  de 

Paris.  1875,  45. 
GARCIN:  Recherches  sur  1'histogenese  des  pericarpes  charnus.     Ann.  Soc.  nat.  Bot. 

Ser.  VII,  1890, 12,  1 75. 
HOWARD  :  Microscopical  Examinations  of  Fruits  and  Fruit  Products.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Bur.  Chem.  Bull.  66,  103. 

JUMELLE:  Sur  les  graines  a  deux  teguments.     B.  S.  B.  France,  1888,  35,  302. 
MALFATTI:  Beitrage  zur  Anatomic  der  Birn-  und  Apfelfrucht.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters. 

Hyg.  1896  10,  265. 
NEVTNNY:  Die  Piment-Matta.      Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1887,  1,  46. 


QUINCE. 

The  quince  (Cydonia  vulgaris  Pers.,  Pyrus  Cydonia  L.),  although  re- 
garded by  some  authorities  as  belonging  to  another  genus,  is  closely 
related  to  the  apple  and  pear.  The  tree  is  a  native  of  central  Asia,  but 
is  cultivated  throughout  the  temperate  regions  of  both  continents. 

The  fruit  of  some  varieties  is  apple-shaped,  of  others  pear-shaped. 
Woolly  hairs  cover  the  surface  of  the  immature  fruit,  but  are  loosely 
attached,  and  many  of  them  either  fall  off  during  ripening  or  are  rubbed 
off  by  handling.  The  fruit  has  five  cavities,  like  the  apple  and  pear, 
but  each  contains  6-15  seeds  arranged  mostly  in  two  crowded  rows. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Receptacle  and  Pericarp,  i.  The  Epidermis  consists  of  window 
cells  (10-25  X)  like  those  of  the  pear  and  also  hairs.  The  latter  are 
exceedingly  crooked  and  usually  have  walls  thinner  than  the  lumen. 
They  resemble  raspberry  hairs. 

2.  The  Hypodermal  Cells  are  of  no  special  interest. 

3.  Fruit   Flesh.     Several   authors    have   cited   the   mesocarp   of   the 
quince  as  one  of  the  most  striking  examples  of .  stone  cells  distributed 
through  a  parenchymatous  tissue.     The  tissue  is  even  more  remarkable 


33 2  FRUIT. 

than  that  of  tne  pear,  as  the  groups  of  stone  cells  are  usually  larger,  often 
reaching  several  millimeters  in  diameter,  and  the  parenchyma  cells  ra- 
diating from  them  are  usually  more  elongated.  Small  starch  grains 
are  distributed  through  the  parenchyma. 

The  inner  layer  of  the  fruit  flesh  is  properly  mesocarp. 

4.  The  Endocarp  of  the  quince  is  similar  to  that  of  the  pear,  except 
that  here  and  there  strongly  thickened  fibers  occur  in  the  middle  layers. 

Spermoderm.  i.  Epidermis.  The  gelatinous  substance  which  sur- 
rounds the  moist  seeds  originates  in  this  layer.  Mounted  in  glycerine 
the  cellular  structure  is  indistinct,  but  on  addition  of  water  the  mucilagi- 
nous substance  forming  the  inner  or  secondary  membrane  of  the  walls 
dissolves  and  the  cells  assume  their  normal,  sharply  prismatic  form.  The 
cells  are  often  over  100  /*  high  and  have  thin  colorless  primary  walls. 
In  tangential  section  they  are  isodiametric  polygonal,  but  in  fragments 
obtained  by  scraping,  owing  to  their  height,  they  often  fall  on  their  sides 
and  present  the  characteristic  elongated  appearance  seen  in  cross  section. 

2.  Fiber  Layer,  3.  Cross  Cells,  4.  Starch  Cells,  and  5.  Inner  Epi- 
dermis, agree  closely  in  structure  with  the  corresponding  layers  of  the 
pear. 

Perisperm.  By  treating  cross  sections  with  Javelle  water,  the  outer 
cells  of  the  compressed  tissue  forming  the  perisperm  swell  to  their  nor- 
mal shape.  The  thick  cuticle  evidently  belongs  to  these  cells. 

Endosperm  and  Embryo  present  the  characters  common  to  the  group. 
Tschirch  notes  that  the  aleurone  grains  vary  from  5.5-6.5  /j.  and  contain 
globoids  in  considerable  numbers. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

As  quinces  are  more  expensive  than  the  other  pomes,  they  probably 
never  serve  as  adulterants.  The  microscopist  may,  however,  be  called 
upon  to  examine  quince  preserves  for  foreign  pulp,  or  quince  seeds 
(used  in  medicine  because  of  their  mucilaginous  properties)  for  seeds  of 
the  apple  or  other  foreign  seeds. 

The  groups  of  stone  cells  in  the  fruit  flesh  are  like  those  of  the  pear, 
and  are  distinguished  from  other  stone  cells  by  the  elongated  parenchyma 
cells,  which,  even  after  cooking,  form  rosettes  about  the  groups.  Mounted 
in  water,  the  thin- walled,  prismatic  epidermal  cells  of  the  spermoderm, 
often  100  /JL  high,  are  unlike  the  epidermal  cells  found  in  the  apple  or 
pear.  The  crooked  hairs  of  the  epicarp  resemble  those  of  the  raspberry. 


QUINCE.     ALMOND  333 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See   General    Bibliography,  pp.   671-674:     Berg  (3);  Planchon  et   Collin   (34); 
Tschirch  (39). 
BORDZILOWSKI:  Ueber  die  Entwicklung  der  beerenartigen  und  fleischigen  Fruchte.  Arb. 

Kiewer  Naturf .  Ges.  1888,  9,  65. 
GARCIN:  Recherches  sur  1'histogenese  des  pericarpes  charnus.    Ann.  Soc.  nat.  Bot. 

Ser.  VII,  1890,  12,  175. 
GODFRIN:  Etude  histologique  sur  les  tegument  seminaux  des  Angiospermes.     Soc. 

d.  Sci.  d.  Nancy,  1880,  109. 
HOWARD:  Microscopical  Examinations  of  Fruits  and  Fruit  Products.    U.  S.  Dept. 

Agr.  Bur.  Chem.  Bull.  66,  103. 

ALHOND. 

Although  the  almond  is  commonly  known  as  a  nut,  it  is  properly  a 
drupe  with  the  outer  pericarp  removed,  or  in  common  parlance,  a  "stone." 
The  almond  tree  (Pmnus  amygdalus  Stokes)  is  so  closely  related  to  the 
peach  that  some  botanists  regard  it  as  but  a  variety  of  the  latter  developed 
by  cultivation.  According  to  Focke  it  is  a  native  of  Turkestan  and  middle 
Asia,  but  it  is  now  cultivated  not  only  in  the  Orient,  but  in  southern  Europe, 
northern  Africa  and  California. 

The  cultivated  varieties  fall  into  two  classes:  the  sweet  almonds  (var. 
dulcis]  including  the  hard  and  the  paper-shelled  varieties,  and  the  bitter 
almonds  (var.  amara),  the  latter  containing  a  glucoside,  amygdalin,  which 
through  the  agency  of  emulsin,  another  constituent,  splits  up  into  dex- 
trose, hydrocyanic  acid,  and  oil  of  bitter  almonds.  In  all  the  varieties, 
the  outer  pericarp  at  maturity  is  not  fleshy  as  in  the  peach,  but  thin  and 
leathery,  splitting  away  from  the  stone  along  a  longitudinal  groove  on  one 
side  of  the  fruit.  The  stone  or  unshelled  almond  is  flattened,  pointed  at 
one  end,  of  a  buff  color,  and  has  a  dull  surface  with  numerous  shallow  pits. 
The  outer  part  of  the  endocarp  is  not  so  hard  as  the  inner,  and  is  more  or 
less  separated  from  the  latter  by  a  zone  containing  the  fibre-vascular 
bundles.  Paper-shelled  almonds,  owing  to  the  thin  endocarp,  are  partic- 
ularly suited  for  table  use. 

Although  the  ovary  contains  two  ovules,  only  one  usually  develops 
into  a  seed  (Fig.  255,  1-5).  The  latter  is  suspended  in  the  cavity,  being 
connected  with  a  large  bundle  running  between  the  two  layers  of  the 
endocarp.  A  conspicuous  raphe  passes  from  the  hilum  situated  near  the 
pointed  or  upper  end  of  the  seed  to  the  chalaza  at  the  lower  or  broader 
end,  there  separating  into  numerous  branches.  A  thin  brown  spermoderm 


334 


FRUIT. 


FlG.  255.     Seeds  of  Drupes.     1-7.  Almond  (Prunus  amygdalus);   8-13.  Peach  (P.  Persica); 

14-20.  Plum  (P.  domestica);    21-26.  Apricot  (P.  Armeniaca). 

Side  views  of  the  seeds  (1-4,  8-10,  14-17,  21-23)  show  variations  in  form  and  size,  Xi; 
basal  views  (5,  n,  18,  24)  show  chalaza  and  nerves,  X2. 

6,  12,  19,  and  25.     Skin  in  cross  section.     Spermoderm  consists  of  a  outer  epidermis, 
b  middle  layers  with  g  bundles,  and  c  inner  epidermis;   d  perisperm;   endosperm  consists  of 
e  aleurone  cells  and  /  obliterated  cells. 

7,  13,  20,  and     6.     Outer  epidermis  of  spermoderm  in  surface  view.     (WiTTMACK  and 


ALMOND.  335 

and  a  still  thinner,  colorless  skin  made  up  of  perisperm  and  endosperm 
incloses  the  embryo,  which  consists  of  large  cotyledons  and  a  small  radicle 
situated  at  the  hilum  end. 

The  highly  esteemed  Jordan  almonds  from  Malaga  have  long,  narrow 
kernels,  with  light  buff,  smooth  spermoderm.  Other  varieties,  including 
Alicanti  or  Valencia  almonds,  have  broadly  ovoid,  flattened  kernels  and 
a  rough,  dark-brown  spermoderm. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Endocarp.  In  the  outer  papery  layers  the  ground  tissue  is  made  up 
of  isodiametric,  parenchyma  and  sclerenchyma  cells  with  thickened  walls 
pierced  by  circular  pores.  The  bundles,  which  lie  in  a  zone  between  this 
and  the  inner  endocarp,  contain  numerous  pitted  vessels  10-15  V-  broad 
and,  rarely,  spiral  vessels. 

The  inner  or  hard  endocarp  is  thin,  being  but  0.5  mm.  or  less  thick  in 
paper-shelled  varieties.  On  the  inner  surface  it  is  smooth  but  not  lus- 
trous. The  cells  throughout  are  sclerenchymatized,  but  vary  greatly  in  size 
and  shape  as  well  as  in  the  thickness  of  the  walls.  Those  in  the  outer  layers 
are  large,  usually  isodiametric,  with  walls  only  slightly  thickened.  Their 
circular  or  elliptical  pores  are  small  but  very  conspicuous.  In  the  middle 
layers  the. stone  cells  are  transversely  elongated  and  rather  narrow,  with 
walls  often  thicker  than  the  breadth  of  the  lumen.  Still  narrower  (seldom 
over  20  p),  elongated  stone  cells  form  the  inner  layers.  They  are  for  the 
most  part  longitudinally  arranged  and  have  walls  so  strongly  thickened 
that  the  lumen  is  reduced  to  a  narrow  line.  All  have  white  or  light  yellow 
walls  and  colorless  or  light  brown  contents. 

The  Spermoderm  forms  a  thin  brown  skin  with  a  finely  granular  outer 
surface.  Cross  sections  should  be  examined  directly  in  water  and  also 
after  treatment  with  alkali,  or,  better  still,  with  Javelle  water. 

1.  Outer  Epidermis  (Fig.  255,  6,  a).    Large  stone  cells  with  broad  lumen 
and  rather  thin  walls  distributed  in  groups  among  the  parenchyma  cells 
characterize  this  layer.     They  reach  a  breadth  of  100  /j.  and  a  height  of 
175  fi.     As  seen  in  cross  section  they  are  more  or  less  rectangular.     Cir- 
cular pores  penetrate  the  walls  of  the  inner  half. 

2.  The  Hypoderm  (b)  includes  two  or  three  layers  of  brown  polygonal 
cells  without  intercellular  spaces. 

3.  The  Middle  Layers  (c)   are  of  spongy  parenchyma,  through  which 
pass  the  raphe  and  its   branches,  consisting  of  numerous  spiral  vessels, 
phloem  elements,  and  crystal  fibers. 


336  FRUIT. 

4.  Inner  Epidermis  (c).  Although  made  up  of  small  cells,  this  layer 
is  distinct  in  cross  section  because  of  the  brown  contents.  In  surface 
view  the  cells  are  polygonal. 

Perisperm  (d).  From  seeds  soaked  in  water  the  perisperm  and  endo- 
sperm may  be  separated  as  a  white  inner  skin.  A  hyaline  layer  of  oblit- 
erated cells  occurs  in  this  as  well  as  in  the  other  common  species  of  the 
genus.  Treatment  of  sections  with  Javelle  water  brings  out  the  outer 
layer  of  rectangular  cells  with  a  cuticularized  outer  membrane. 

The  Endosperm  (e)  consists  of  a  single  layer  of  aleurone  cells  with 
rather  thick  walls,  and  inner  layers  of  obliterated  cells. 

Embryo.  The  epidermal  cells  are  elongated,  the  cells  of  the  inner 
layers  rounded.  The  small  aleurone  grains  of  the  ground  tissue  are 
3-5  fij  the  large  solitary  grains  10-15  /*  in  diameter.  Some  contain 
crystalloids,  others  globoids,  and  still  others,  particularly  the  large  soli- 
tary grains,  calcium  oxalate  rosettes. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole  Almonds.  Seeds  or  "pits"  of  the  peach,  apricot,  and  plum 
closely  resemble  shelled  almonds,'  and  are  common  substitutes  (Fig.  255). 
Wittmack  and  Buchwald,  who  have  made  comparative  studies  of  the 
four  seeds,  find  that,  although  the  stone  cells  found  in  the  epidermis  of 
the  almond  and  peach  are  commonly  higher  than  broad,  whereas  in  the 
apricot  and  plum  they  are  broader  than  high,  this  distinction  is  of  little 
service  in  identification.  The  characters  on  which  they  place  chief 
dependence  follow : 

1.  Almond.     Agreeable  taste,  also  strong  odor  on  adding  hot  water, 
characteristic.     Even  bitter  almonds  lack  disagreeably  bitter  taste.    Sper- 
moderm  firm,  leathery,  light  yellow-brown  within. 

2.  Peach.     Kernels    broadly    ovoid,   flatter    than    those  of    almonds, 
smaller   than  most    almonds,    sharply  angled.      Sperm oderm  very  thin, 
brown  within.     Taste  at  first  somewhat  sweet,  afterwards  bitter.     Odor, 
after  treatment  with  hot  water,  sweet. 

3.  Plum.     Kernels  rather  long  or  broadly  ovoid,  thick,  rounded  at 
angles.     Spermoderm   as  in  peach.     Taste  like   that  of  peach  kernels, 
but   bitter   after-taste   more   disagreeable.     Odor   after   scalding   sweet, 
suggesting  ripe  plums. 

4.  Apricots.     Kernels  broadly  heart-shaped,  flat.     Spermoderm  firm, 
leathery,  within  white  and  shining.     Taste  same  as  that  of  peach  and 
plum  kernels.     Disagreeable,  sweet  odor  on  treatment  with  hot  water. 


ALMOND.    PEACH.  337 

Almond  Paste  consists  of  the  ground  kernel  freed  from  spermoderm. 
From  it  are  made  dietetic  preparations  for  diabetics,  also  cosmetics,  and 
macaroons,  a  well-known  confection.  Peach  and  apricot  kernels  are 
common  adulterants,  but  cannot,  with  our  present  knowledge,  be  de- 
tected by  the  microscope. 

Almond  Cake,  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  almond 
oil,  yields  on  grinding  almond  flour,  much  used  as  a  cosmetic,  also  in 
Europe  as  an  adulterant  of  ground  spices  and  other  powders.  The 
tissues  of  the  spermoderm,  particularly  the  stone  cells  of  the  epidermis 
(Fig.  255,  7,  a),  are  of  chief  importance  in  diagnosis. 

Almond  Shells,  like  those  of  other  fruit  stones,  are  ground  for  adulter- 
ating spices.  The  stone  cells  and  vascular  elements  are  easily  found, 
but  not  so  easily  distinguished  from  similar  elements  of  other  shells. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Berg  (3);  Collin  et  Perrot  (9);  Hanausek, 
T.  F.  (10,  16,  48);  Meyer,  Arthur  (27);  Moeller  (29);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Vogl 

(45)- 

COLLIN:  Falsification  des  substances  alimentaires  par  les  coques  d'amandes  pulverisees. 
Journ.  pharm.  chim.,  1905,  101. 

GARCIN  :  Du  noyau  des  drupes.  Histologie  et  histogenese.  Ann.  d.  1.  Soc.  Bot.  Lyon, 
1890,  17,  27. 

GARCIN:  Contributions  a  1' etude  des  pericarpes  charnus.  Du  noyau  des  drupes.  His- 
tologie et  histologenese.  Lyon,  1890. 

GARCIN:  Recerches  sur  1'histogenese  des  pericarps  charnus.  Ann.  Soc.  nat.  Bot.  Ser. 
VII,  1890,  12,  175. 

GODFRIN:  Etude  histologique  surlestdgument  seminaux  des  Angiospermes.  Soc.  d. 
Sci.  d.  Nancy,  1880,  109. 

WITTMACK  u.  BUCHWALD:  Die  Unterscheidung  der  Mandeln  von  ahnlichen  Samen. 
Ber.  deutsch.  bot.  Ges.  1901,  19,  584. 

PEACH. 

Notwithstanding  its  specific  name  (Prunus  Persica  Sieb.  et  Zucc.),  the 
peach  is  believed  to  be  a  native  of  China.  It  is  a  typical  drupe,  with 
a  hairy  epicarp,  a  fleshy  mesocarp,  and  a  dense,  deeply  furrowed  stone 
or  endocarp.  The  varieties  in  cultivation  have  yellow  or  white  flesh, 
the  outer  portion,  particularly  in  white  peaches,  often  being  suffused 
with  red,  as  are  often  the  fibrous  layers  adjoining  the  stone.  The 
stone  either  clings  to  the  flesh  or  is  free.  The  seed  (Fig.  255,  8-n) 
is  smaller  than  the  almond  and  has  a  thinner  spermoderm.  It  tastes 
at  first  sweet,  afterwards  bitter,  and  has  a  sweet  odor  after  scalding. 


338  FRUIT. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Fresh  or  canned  whole  peaches  may  be  hardened  in  alcohol  for  section- 
ing. The  epicarp  separates  readily  from  the  fully  ripe  fruit,  especially 
after  scalding.  Sections  of  the  stone  may  be  prepared  with  a  strong 
razor,  or  by  grinding  on  an  oil-stone. 

Pericarp,  i.  The  Epicarp  elements  are  polygonal  cells,  stomata 
and  numerous  hairs,  the  latter  forming  a  dense  velvety  coat.  These 
hairs  are  exceedingly  variable  in  length,  many  being  mere  papillae,  while 
others  exceed  i  mm.  They  are  straight  or  slightly  sinuous,  10-25  // 
broad  in  the  middle,  tapering  toward  both  ends,  and  are  either  rather 
sharp  pointed  or,  less  often,  blunt.  Even  the  short  forms  are  strongly 
developed,  the  thickness  of  the  walls  usually  exceeding  the  breadth  of 
the  lumen.  The  basal  portions  between  the  epidermal  cells  are  exceed- 
ingly narrow  (6-10  //),  with  scarcely  evident  lumen.  Separated  from  the 
epicarp,  the  hairs  often  appear  double  pointed. 

2.  A  Hypoderm  of  4-6  layers  of  tabular,  somewhat  collenchymatous 
cells  is  seen  in  cross  section. 

3.  Mesocarp.    The  cells  are  for  the  most   part  rounded   and   present 
no  characteristic  feature.     Howard  finds  that  the  vessels  of  the  bundles 
are  mostly  reticulated,  spiral  vessels  being  absent.     About  the  bundles 
the  pulp  cells  are  elongated. 

4.  Endocarp.     The  hard,  deeply  furrowed  shell  of  the  peach  stone 
is  3-8  mm.  thick,  of  a  light  brown  color.     Although  exceedingly  hard 
throughout,  it  is  easily  split  into  halves  by  inserting  a  knife-blade  through 
the  suture,  thus  disclosing  a  prominent  bundle  entering  the  cavity  near 
its  upper  end.    A  continuation  of  this  bundle  is  the  funiculus.    There  is 
no  separation  of  the  endocarp  by  a  bundle  zone  into  an  outer  and  inner 
portion  as  in  the  case  of  the  almond,  the  tissues  being  hard  and,  to  the 
naked  eye,  nearly  uniform  throughout. 

The  bulk  of  the  stone  is  a  dense  aggregate  of  nearly  isodiametric 
stone  cells  often  50-75  /*  broad,  with  colorless,  porous  walls  equalling 
or  exceeding  in  thickness  the  breadth  of  the  lumen.  Within  0.5  mm.  or 
less  of  the  inner  surface  there  is  a  layer  200-300  /*  thick  of  narrow 
transversely  elongated  stone  cells,  passing  abruptly  into  an  inner  layer 
of  still  narrower  forms  longitudinally  arranged. 

The  Spermoderm,  Perisperm,  Endosperm,  and  Embryo  conform 
closely  in  structure  to  the  almond.  Wittmack  and  Buchwald  note  that 
the  epidermal  stone  cells  of  the  peach  spermoderm  taper  toward  the 


PEACH.    APRICOT.  339 

free  end,  two  neighboring  cells  being  in  contact  only  at  the  basal  end 
(Fig.  255,  ij,  a).     In  surface  view  this  character  is  not  evident. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  Pulp  or  flesh  is  not  only  eaten  raw,  but  is  dried  and  preserved 
whole,  and  is  made  into  preserves. 

It  consists  of  thin  walled  elements  and  bundles.  The  absence  of 
spiral  vessels  in  the  bundles  facilitates  the  detection  of  apple  pulp,  one 
of  the  commonest  adulterants  of  fruit  products.  In  preserves,  even 
when  made  from  the  pared  fruit,  as  is  almost  always  the  case,  fragments 
of  the  epicarp,  or  more  commonly  the  detached  hairs  from  this  coat,  are 
present  in  greater  or  less  abundance.  The  hairs  are  characterized  by 
their  variable  length,  thick  walls,  and  narrow  base.  Detached  from 
the  epicarp  they  appear  to  be  double-pointed. 

The  Endocarp  in  powder  form  lacks  characteristic  features,  the  color- 
less stone  cells  of  other  drupes  and  of  other  vegetable  products  having 
practically  the  same  appearance. 

The  Seed  (Fig  255)  agrees  so  closely  in  structure  with  the  almond 
that  distinction  must  be  based  largely  on  physical  tests  (p.  336). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  Bibliography  of  Almond,  p.  337:  Garcin;  Godfrin;  Wittmack  u.  Buchwald. 
HOWARD:    Microscopical  Examinations  of  Fruits  and  Fruit    Products.     U.  S.  Dept. 

Agr.  Bur.  Chem.  Bull.  66,  103. 
LAMPE:    Zur  Kenntniss  des  Baues  und  der  Entwickelung  saftiger  Friichte.     Ztschr. 

Naturw.  1886,  59,  295. 
MICRO  :  Ueber  den  microskopischen  Bau  der  Steinkerne  von  Amygdalus  persica,  Prunus 

armeniaca,    domestica    et    aviuw,  sowie    deren    Vorkommen    in    Genussmitteln. 

Ztschr.  osterr.  Apoth.-Ver.  1893,  31,  2,  21. 

APRICOT. 

The  apricot  tree  (Prunus  Armeniaca  L.),  a  native  of  central  Asia, 
is  cultivated  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  also  extensively  in  California. 
The  fruit  is  a  drupe,  very  much  like  the  peach  in  macroscopic  structure, 
the  chief  difference  being  that  the  stone  is  nearly  lenticular,  about  20  cm. 
broad,  and  is  merely  roughened  on  the  surface  by  shallow  pits,  whereas 
the  peach  stone  is  deeply  furrowed.  On  the  ventral  suture  is  a  promi- 
nent keel  with  a  sharp  edge,  and  either  side  of  this  keel  a  pronounced 
rib.  Through  the  stone,  beneath  the  suture,  passes  the  bundle  which 
enters  the  locule  near  the  apex  and  passes  into  .the  funiculus. 


340  FRUIT. 

The  more  or  less  heart-shaped,  flattened  seed  (Fig.  255,  14-18)  is  but 
little  elongated,  the  breadth  often  equaling  or  exceeding  the  length.  It 
has  a  bitter  after-taste,  and  on  scalding  with  water  a  disagreeable,  sweet 
smell. 

HISTOLOGY. 

In  histological  structure  the  distinctions  from  the  peach  are  few  and 
not  well  marked. 

Pericarp.  The  F,picarp,  Mesocarp,  and  Endocarp  agree  closely  with 
the  corresponding  parts  of  the  peach.  Howard  notes  that  the  meso- 
carp  bundles  contain  many  greatly  elongated,  reticulated  vessels,  but 
only  rarely  spiral  forms. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  255,  25,  26).  Wittmack  and  Buchwald  find  that 
the  epidermal  stone  cells  of  the  apricot  and  plum  are  smaller  than  in  the 
almond  and  peach,  and  their  height  (48-60  /*)  is  often  considerably  less 
than  their  breadth  (66-102  /*).  As  these  distinctions  are  not  always 
well  marked  and  are  not  evident  in  surface  view,  they  are  regarded  by 
these  authors  as  of  little  value  in  distinguishing  the  seeds. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Apricots  preserved  without  removal  of  the  skins  and  stones  are  iden- 
tified by  the  hairs  of  the  former  and  the  shape,  size  and  shallow-pitted 
surface  of  the  latter.  The  epidermal  stone  cells  of  the  spermoderm 
are  smaller  than  in  the  almond  and  peach.  Further  distinctions  are 
described  under  Almond. 

Preserved  apricots,  containing  neither  skin  nor  stones,  lack  distinctive 
characters. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  Bibliography  of  Almond,  p.  337,  and  Peach,  p.  339:  Howard;  Micko;  Witt- 
mack  u.  Buchwald. 


Numerous  varieties  of  both  the  European  plum  (Prunus  domestica  L.) 
and  the  Japanese  species  (P.  triflora  Rxb.)  are  cultivated  throughout  the 
temperate  zone.  The  European  species  includes  red,  blue,  and  white 
varieties,  differing  greatly  in  size  and  excellence.  None  of  the  Japanese 
varieties  is  blue  or  purple. 

Plums  never  have  a  hairy  epicarp,  but  in  other  respects  are  not 
strikingly  different  from  apricots.  The  stone  is  smaller  than  that  of  the 
apricot  and  somewhat  more  elongated,  but  otherwise  is  very  similar  both 
in  gross  and  minute  structure  (Fig.  255,  14-18). 


PLUM.     CHERRY.  341 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp,  i.  Epicarp.  The  division  of  the  mother  cells  into  daughter 
cells  is  clearly  evident  in  surface  preparations.  The  walls  are  more  or 
less  distinctly  beaded.  In  the  European  plum  the  cells  are  seldom  over 
60  ftj  in  the  Japanese  varieties  still  smaller,  rarely  exceeding  35  JH.  The 
coloring  matter  of  blue,  red,  and  other  colored  varieties  is  confined  entirely 
to  the  epicarp. 

2.  Mesocarp.  The  ground  tissue  is  not  characteristic.  According  to 
Howard,  both  spiral  and  reticulated  vessels  are  found  in  the  bundles. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  255,  jp,  20).  The  stone  cells  are  seldom  higher 
than  broad  and  resemble  closely  those  of  the  apricot. 

Endosperm.  On  the  broad  sides  of  the  seeds  there  are  15-25  layers 
of  well-formed  aleurone  cells,  but  on  the  narrow  sides  there  is  but  one 
layer. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Plums  are  commonly  dried,  or  preserved  in  a  wet  way,  with  skins  and 
stones,  thus  facilitating  their  identification.  Prunes  (dried  plums),  are 
sometimes  used  in  coffee  substitutes.  The  stone  is  smaller  than  that  of 
the  apricot  but  similar  in  shape,  external  appearance,  and  anatomical 
structure.  The  absence  of  hairs  on  the  epicarp  furnishes  a  ready  means 
of  distinction  from  both  the  peach  and  the  apricot. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General    Bibliography,   pp.  671-674:     Blyth    (5);    also    see    Bibliography    of 
Almond,  p.  337,  and  Peach,  p.  339:  Howard;    Micko;  Wittmack  u.  Buchwald. 
BORDZILOWSKI  :  Ueber  die  Entwickelung  der  beerenartigen  und  fleischigen  Friichte. 
Arb.  Kiewer  Naturf.  Ges.  1888,  9,  65. 

CHERRY. 

The  sweet  or  Mazzard  cherry  (Prunus  amum  L.),  a  native  of  Europe 
and  western  Asia,  also  the  sour  or  Morello  cherry  (Prunus  cerasus  L.), 
are  both  cultivated  in  numerous  varieties,  which  are  black,  white,  or  red 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  coloring  matter  in  the  epicarp. 

Like  the  plum,  the  epicarp  is  smooth,  but  the  cells  are  noticeably 
larger,  seldom  less  than  35  /*,  often  100  p.  in  diameter;  furthermore,  the 
division  of  mother  cells  into  daughter  cells  is  not  usually  evident. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

LAMPE:   Zur  Kenntniss  des  Baues  und  der  Entwickelung  saf tiger  Friichte.     Ztschr. 
Naturw.  1886,  59,  295. 


342     V  FRUIT. 


ROSE   FRUIT. 

The  " seeds,"  or  more  correctly  speaking  the  fruits,  of  the  dog  rose 
(Rosa  canina  L.)  and  of  other  species  of  the  same  genus  are  of  some  im- 
portance in  Europe  as  a  drug  and  as  a  coffee  substitute. 

The  ovoid,  lustrous,  red,  compound  fruit,  the  size  of  a  small  grape, 
consists  of  a  closed  receptacle  bearing  on  the  inner  hairy  surface  several 
true  fruits  about  as  large  as  grape  seeds.  Each  fruit  is  a  dry  drupe  with 
hard  pericarp  hairy  at  the  base,  thin  spermoderm,  inconspicuous  endo- 
sperm, and  relatively  large  embryo,  the  structure  throughout  being  quite 
similar  to  that  of  the  strawberry  nutlet. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Lacking  the  fruits  of  Rosa  canina,  the  fruits  of  any  rose  may  be 
examined,  as  they  all  agree  closely  in  structure. 

Receptacle.  The  polygonal  outer  epidermal  cells  with  red  contents, 
and  the  hairs  of  the  inner  epidermis  are  the  important  tissues.  The 
latter  often  reach  the  length  of  several  millimeters,  have  thick  walls  and 
narrow  lumen,  and  gradually  taper  toward  the  base  so  that  when 
detached  they  are  pointed  at  both  ends. 

Pericarp.  Transverse,  longitudinal,  and  tangential  sections  are  cut 
with  a  strong  razor. 

1.  The  Epicarp  Cells  are  longitudinally  elongated,  and  are  the  only 
cells  of  the  pericarp  that  are  not  sclerenchymatized. 

2.  Hypoderm.     One  or  more  layers  of  longitudinally  elongated   (in 
cross  section  isodiametric),  rather  thin-walled  cells  form  the  hypodermal 
layer. 

3.  Large  radially  elongated  Stone  Cells  constitute  the  middle  layers. 

4.  Longitudinal  Fibers.     These  fibers  are  distinguished  in  cross  sec- 
tion from  the  stone  cells  of  the  preceding  layer  by  their  small  diameter 
and  isodiametric  form. 

5.  Transverse  Fibers  in  several  layers  are  seen  to  advantage  in  cross 
section.     Like  the  crossing  fibers  of  the  fourth  layer  they  are  exceedingly 
narrow. 

Spermoderm.  Cross  sections  cut  with  the  pericarp  should  be  soaked 
for  a  time  in  Javelle  water  to  expand  and  clear  the  tissues.  The  spermo- 
derm should  also  be  studied  in  surface  preparations  obtained  by  soaking 
the  seeds  in  Javelle  water  and  scraping. 


ROSE  FRUIT.     STRAWBERRY.  343 

The  Outer  Epidermis  is  of  polygonal  cells  (30-75  //)  in  diameter,  and 
the  Inner  Epidermis,  of  narrow  (8-15  /*),  transversely  elongated  cells  of  a 
brown  color.  The  middle  layers  are  either  absent  or  obliterated. 

Perisperm.  This  is  an  obliterated  tissue  forming  a  hyaline  mem- 
brane on  the  outer  cells  of  the  endosperm. 

Endosperm.  One  to  several  layers  of  cells  containing  aleurone 
grains,  with  often  obliterated  inner  layers,  constitute  the. thin  endosperm. 

The  Embryo  tissues  are  like  those  of  the  strawberry  (p.  347). 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  epidermal  cells  of  the  receptacle  with  red  contents,  the  hairs 
pointed  at  both  ends,  the  stone  cells  of  the  pericarp,  and  the  thin- walled 
cells  of  the  spermoderm  are  the  chief  diagnostic  elements. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (10);  Villiers  et  Collin 
(42). 

STRAWBERRY. 

The  varieties  of  strawberry  cultivated  in  Europe  are  chiefly  improved 
forms  of  Fragaria  Chiloensis  Ehrh.,  but  some  are  said  to  be  hybrids 
of  this  species  with  F.  vesca  L.,  or  F.  Virginiana  Duchesne.  In  many 
parts  of  Europe,  however,  the  small  but  delicious  wood  strawberry 
(F.  vesca  L.)  is  consumed  in  larger  quantities,  both  fresh  and  preserved, 
than  the  cultivated  sorts. 

In  colonial  times  the  wild  strawberry  (F.  Virginiana),  with  its  several 
varieties,  was  cultivated  in  American  gardens,  but  of  late  years  has  been 
supplanted  almost  entirely  by  the  numerous  derivatives  of  the  Chilian 
species,  although  wild  strawberries  are  still  gathered  in  considerable 
quantities  in  the  meadows.  F.  vesca  grows  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
United  States,  but  it  is  not  so  common  as  the  Virginian  species. 

The  cultivated  strawberries  (F.  Chiloensis)  are  usually  of  large  size 
(often  3-5  cm.  in  diameter),  and  bear  the  achenes  in  deep  depressions. 

Berries  of  the  wood  species  (F.  vesca)  are  of  small  size  (seldom  over 
I  cm.  in  diameter)  and  bear  the  achenes  in  shallow  depressions. 

Berries  of  the  Virginian  species  are  of  about  the  same  size  as  the 
wood  strawberries,  but  like  the  cultivated  berries,  the  achenes  are  deeply 
sunken  in  the  receptacle. 

The  receptacle,  the  edible  part  of  the  strawberry,  consists  of  a  some- 


344 


FRUIT. 


what  fleshy  pith,  a  still  more  fleshy  cortex,  and  between  the  two  a  narrow 
zone  of  fibro- vascular  bundles,  from  which  branches  shoot  off  through 
the  cortex  to  the  achenes  (Fig.  256,  /). 

On  the  surface,  the  receptacle  has  a  tufted  appearance,  due  to  the 


FIG.  256.  Strawberry  (Fragaria  Chiloensis).  I  aggregate  fruit,  X2.  II  achene,  Xi. 
///  achene,  X8:  Sty  style;  Sti  stigma;  B  connecting  bundle.  IV  achene  in  trans- 
verse section,  X32:  F  pericarp;  S  spermoderm;  R  raphe;  £  endosperm;  Em  embryo. 

(WlNTON.) 

somewhat  regularly  arranged  depressions  occupied  by  the  achenes.  The 
epidermis  is  sparingly  pubescent. 

The  achenes  are  ovate,  pointed,  about  i  mm.  long  (Fig.  256,  //  and  ///). 
Each  is  attached  to  the  receptacle  a  little  above  its  base,  and  contains 
a  single  anatropous  seed,  which  is  described  as  "  exalbuminous,"  since 
the  endosperm  is  not  evident  under  the  simple  lens.  The  style  (about 
2  mm.  long)  arises  from  the  ventral  side  a  little  above  the  point  of  attach- 
ment. 

The  pericarp  is  hard  and  comparatively  thick;  the  spermoderm  soft 
and  thin;  the  embryo  minute  (Fig.  256,  IV).  When  the  fruit  reaches 
maturity  the  calyx  is  still  green  and  leaf-like,  and  the  stamens  are  also 
well  preserved.  The  calyx,  the  stamens,  and  a  portion  of  the  pith  are 
removed  in  preparing  the  fruit  for  the  table. 

HISTOLOGY. 

In  microscopic  structure  the  cultivated,  the  wood,  and  the  Virginian 
strawberries  are  identical. 

Receptacle  (Fig.  257).  i.  The  Epidermal  Cells  (ep)  for  the  most 
part  are  polygonal  and  isodiametric,  but  those  radiating  from  the  base 
of  each  hair  are  usually  irregularly  diamond-shape,  and  often  strongly 
elongated.  The  hairs  are  not  numerous,  but  are  often  over  a  milli- 
meter long,  tapering  gradually  from  the  widest  part  near  the  base  to 


STRAWBERRY. 


345 


the  point  (h).  In  the  basal  portion  the  lumen  is  several  times  the  thick- 
ness of  the  walls,  but  narrows  somewhat  abruptly  further  on,  and  for 
fully  three-fourths  of  the  total  length  of  the  hair  is  but  a  narrow  channel 


FIG.  257.     Strawberry.     Receptacle  in  surface  view,     ep  epidermis  with  h  hair  and  sto 
stoma;   hy  hypoderm;    k  glucoside  (?)  crystals.     Xi6o.     (WiNTON.) 

hardly  one-quarter  as  wide  as  the  walls.     The  walls,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  narrowest  at  the  basal  end.     Stomata  occur  sparingly. 

2.  Hypoderm  or  Sarkogen  Layer  (hy).     Tschierske  has  shown  that 
the  fleshy  receptacle  of  the  strawberry  owes  its  origin  to  a  hypodermal 
layer   of  meristematic   cells,    which    are   mostly   tangentially   elongated, 
and  are  always  without  intercellular  spaces.     These  cells,  to  which  he 
gives  the  name  "sarkogen  layer,"  resemble  the  phellogen  or  cork-forming 
cells  of  other  plants,  but  differ  in  that  the  new  cells  are  formed  centripe- 
tally  and  remain  active  during  the  whole  period  of  growth,  whereas  the 
cork  cells  are  formed  centrifugally  and  die  soon  after  formation.     The 
cells  increase  in  size  in  radial  directions,  and  divide  by  tangential  par- 
titions.    After  they  have  performed  their  mission  they  continue  to  increase 
in  size,  but  hold  to  their  original  shape. 

3.  Cortical   Tissue.     The  daughter  cells  formed  by  the  division  of 
the  cells  of  the  sarkogen  layer  increase  rapidly  in  size,  become  round 
in  shape,   and   form  intercellular  spaces.     This  tissue  forms  the  bulk 
of  the  ripe  fruit.     Each  cell  is  rich  in  contents,  which,  on  cooking  or 
treatment  with  alcohol,  yield  a  shriveled,  opaque  mass. 

4.  Bundles.     Spiral  and   annular  vessels  from   5-10   //  in  diameter, 
and  thin-walled,   elongated  cells,   are  the  conspicuous  elements  of  the 
bundles. 


346 


FRUIT. 


5.  Pith.  Large  berries  often  contain  large  intercellular  spaces  or 
cavities  in  the  pith,  formed  by  the  tearing  asunder  of  the  cells  during  the 
rapid  growth. 

Pericarp  (Fig.  258).  i.  Epicarp  (epi).  In  surface  view,  the  cells 
are  polygonal,  15-50  /(  in  diameter,  with  thin  walls.  The  cuticle  is 
several  times  as  thick  as  the  radial  walls  of  the  cells. 

2.  Mesocarp  (mes).  This  layer  is  strikingly  different  from  the  meso- 
carp  of  most  edible  fruits  in  that  it  is  not  succulent,  and  consists  of  only 


FlG.  258.  Strawberry.  Achene  in  transverse  section.  F  pericarp  consists  of  epi  epicarp, 
mes  mesocarp,  sp  spiral  vessels,  k  crystal  layer,  //  outer  endocarp  with  longitudinally 
extended  fibers,  and  qf  inner  endocarp  with  transversely  extended  fibers;  S  sperm  oderm 
consists  of  ep  epidermis  with  reticulated  cells,  and  br  elongated  brown  cells;  N  peri- 
sperm;  E  endosperm  consists  of  a  single  layer  of  aleurone  cells.  Xsoo.  (WiNTON.) 


one,  or  in  some  parts  two,  cell-layers.  In  cross  section  the  cells  have 
much  the  same  appearance  as  the  epidermal  cells,  but  usually  have 
smaller  dimensions.  On  the  inner  side  are  numerous  bundles,  the  branches 
of  which  run  transversely  about  the  achene. 

3.  Crystal  Layer  (k).     The  cells  are  polygonal,  8-20  ,«  in  diameter. 
The  monoclinic  crystals  are  always  simple. 

4.  Outer  Endocarp  (//).     This  layer,  forming  the  larger  part  of  the 
pericarp,  is  made  up  of  five  or  more  thicknesses  of  sclerenchyma  fibers 
longitudinally  arranged.     The  cell-  walls  are  distinctly  porous  and  about 
as  thick  as  the  lumen. 

5.  The  Inner  Endocarp  (qf)  consists  of  the  same  elements  as  the  outer 
endocarp,  but  is  only  one  or  two  cell-layers  thick,  and  the  cells  are  ar- 
ranged transversely.     On  the  dorsal  side  some  of  the  fibers  of  this  layer 
extend  radially  through  the  outer  endocarp,  thus  facilitating  the  rup- 
ture of  the  pericarp  during  sprouting. 


STRAWBERRY. 


347 


Spermoderm  (Figs.  258  and  259).  i.  The  Epidermis  (ep)  is  of  thin- 
walled  polygonal  cells.  The  cell- walls  are  exceedingly  thin,  but  are 
strengthened  by  spirally  reticulated  bands,  which  do  not  pass  completely 
around  the  cell,  but  are  wanting  on  the  outer  surface,  so  that  in  mounting 
a  preparation  the  outer  wall  often  collapses  and  the  side  walls  fall  down, 
presenting  the  appearance  shown  in  Fig.  259. 

2.  Brown  Layer  (br).  The  second  layer  of  the  spermoderm  is  com- 
posed of  transversely  elongated  brown  cells,  often  arranged  side  by  side 


FIG.  259.      Strawberry.      Spermoderm  FIG.  260.      Straw- 

and     endosperm     in     surface    vjew.  berry.    Style  and 

ep   reticulated  epidermis  of  spermo-  stigma.        X32. 

derm;    br  brown  cells;   E  endosperm.  (WiNTON.) 
X  300.     (WiNTON.) 


FIG.  261.  Strawberry. 
Style  in  surface  view,  ep 
transparent  epidermis; 
sp  spiral  vessels ;  k  crystal 
cells.  X  300.  (WiNTON.) 


in  rows.  They  vary  up  to  100  /<  in  length,  and  usually  between  10- 
15  JJL  in  width. 

Perisperm  (TV).  This  coat  consists  for  the  most  part  of  obliterated 
cells  forming  a  cellulose  layer  from  2-4  /JL  thick,  but  on  the  ventral  side 
the  cells  are  often  well  denned. 

Endosperm  (E).     This  consists  of  a  single  layer  of  aleurone  cells. 

Embryo.  Two  large  cotyledons,  each  in  cross- section  semielliptical, 
make  up  the  bulk  of  the  embryo.  The  thin- walled  cells  contain  pro- 
tein and  fat  but  no  starch. 

Style  and  Stigma  (Figs.  260  and  261).  The  strawberry  style  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  styles  of  other  edible  rosaceous  fruits  by  its  constricted 
base  and  the  large  size  and  transparency  of  the  epiderm  cells.  It  is 
about  0.3  mm.  in  diameter  in  the  middle  part,  but  tapers  somewhat  toward 


FRUIT. 

the  stigma,  and  very  markedly  toward  the  base,  where  it  is  less  than 
o.i  mm.  in  diameter.  The  epidermal  cells  (ep)  are  for  the  most  part 
about  40  fs.  wide,  100-150  /*  long,  and  (as  may  be  seen  on  the  margins, 
by  focusing)  50  /£  thick.  The  central  core  appears  darker  than  the 
transparent  margins,  owing  to  the  greater  density  of  the  parts  as  well 
as  to  the  greater  thickness.  Treatment  with  alkali  discloses  spiral  and 
annular  vessels,  also  rows  of  accompanying  crystal  cells  (k),  each  con- 
taining a  crystal  rosette. 

Fungous  growths  often  completely  hide  the  papillae  of  the  stigma, 
even  after  treatment  with  reagents  or  cooking. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Styles  and  achenes  may  be  readily  picked  out  with  forceps  and  exam- 
ined as  to  their  size  and  shape  under  a  lens.  The  styles  (Figs.  260  and 
261),  transparent  in  the  fresh  fruit,  and  rendered  still  more  so  by  the 
boiling  with  sugar,  may  be  studied  under  the  compound  microscope 
without  further  treatment.  Their  size  (2  mm.  long),  narrow  base  and 
large  transparent  epidermal  cells,  are  especially  characteristic;  but  the 
spiral  vessels  accompanied  by  crystal  clusters,  and  the  stigma,  often 
bristling  with  fungous  threads,  further  aid  in  the  identification.  Crystals 
are  clearly  differentiated  by  the  aid  of  polarizing  apparatus. 

For  the  study  of  the  pericarp  and  seed,  cross  sections  (Fig.  258)  should 
be  prepared,  holding  the  achene  between  pieces  of  soft  wood  or  in  a 
hand-vice  during  the  cutting.  Especially  striking  are  the  two  crossing 
endocarp  layers  of  sclerenchym a -fibers,  the  endosperm  of  a  single  cell 
layer,  and  the  relatively  large  embryo.  The  reticulated  cells  of  the  outer 
layer  of  the  spermoderm  are  highly  characteristic. 

The  hairs  (Fig.  257,  h)  of  the  receptacle  are  characterized  by  their 
length  (often  i  mm.)  and  narrow  lumen. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Blyth  (5). 

KRAUS:  Ueber  den  Bau  trockner  Pericarpien.     Pringsh.  Jahrb.  £866,  5,  83. 
MARPMANN:  Beitrage   zur  mikroskopischen    Untersuchung    der    Fruchtmarmeladen. 

Ztschr.  angew.  Mikr.  1896,  2,  97. 
TSCHIERSKE  :  Beitrage  zur  vergleichenden  Anatomic  und  Entwicklungsgeschichte  einiger 

Dryadeenfrtichte.     Ztschr.  Naturwissenschaft.  1886,  59,  594. 
WINTON:  Beitrage  zur  Anatomic  des  Beerenobstes.     Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm. 

1902,  5,  785.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1902,  288. 


RED  RASPBERRY. 


349 


RED    RASPBERRY. 

Rubus  Idtzus  L.  occurs  native  in  various  part  of  the  Old  World  and 
is  the  parent  of  the  raspberries  cultivated  in  European  gardens. 

Bailey1  states  that  the  red  raspberries  cultivated  in  America  are 
offspring  of  the  native  R.  strigosus  Michx.,  which,  however,  is  closely 
related  to  the  European  raspberry  R.  'Id&us  L.  The  yellow  varieties 
are  but  albino  forms  of  these  species. 

The  raspberry,  blackberry,  and  other  bramble  fruits  (Rubus)  are 
intermediate  in  both  macroscopic  and  microscopic  structure  between 
the  straw  berry  (Fragaria)  and  the  stone  fruits  (Prunus).  They  resemble 
the  strawberry  in  that  they  are  aggregate  fruits  with  numerous  indi- 
vidual fruitlets  on  a  common  receptacle  (although  unlike  the  straw- 
berry, the  cortex  of  the  receptacle  is  not  fleshy  and  bears  the  fruitlets 
on  elevations,  not  in  depressions);  and  they  resemble  the  stone  fruits 
in  the  structure  of  the  pericarp  and  seed,  each  individual  fruitlet 
being  in  fact  a  minature  drupe.  The  resemblance  between  the  rasp- 
berry drupelet  and  the  peach  is  especially  striking.  In  both  the  epi- 
carp  is  pubescent,  the  mesocarp  is  fleshy,  the  endocarp  (Fig.  262,  /// 


FIG.  262.      Red  Raspberry  (Rubus  strigosus).      I  aggregate  fruit,  Xi.     //  cross  section 


jerry   {j\uuus  smgusus).       i    aggregate   iruii,    /\i.     in    «. 

of  a  drupelet,  X 32 :  Epi  epicarp;  Hy  hypoderm;  Mes  mesocarp;  F  outer  endocarp; 
F'  inner  endocarp;  5  spermoderm;  R  raphe;  E  endosperm;  Em  embryo.  ///  stone, 
Xi.  IV  stone,  X8.  (WiNTON.) 

and  IV)  is  a  hard  stone  with  wrinkles  on  the  surface  and  the  united 
spermoderm  and  endosperm  form  a  thin  coat  for  the  relatively  large 
embryo.  They  are  also  very  similar  in  minute  structure,  as  is  noted 
further  on. 

1  The  Evolution  of  Our  Native  Fruits.     London,  1898,  287. 


35°  FRUIT. 

The  drupelets  are  crowded  together  on  the  top  and  sides  of  the  recep- 
tacle, each  having  a  convex  top  or  exposed  surface  and  four  to  seven 
facets  on  the  sides  formed  -by  the  pressure  of  the  adjoining  drupelets 
(Fig.  262,  /).  These  facets  are  usually  slightly  convex  or  concave.  Owing 
to  their  crowded  arrangement  the  thickness  of  the  flesh  in  the  sides  of 
the  drupelets  is  much  less  than  in  the  outer  part.  The  exposed  surface 
and  the  angles  between  the  facets  are  pubescent,  the  facets  themselves 
glabrous.  In  picking  a  raspberry  the  drupelets  separate  from  the 
receptacle,  clinging  together  in  the  form  of  a  cup.  Tschierske  states 
that  the  individuals  cling  together,  first  because  of  the  closely  fitting 
adjoining  facets,  the  slightly  convex  surface  of  one  fitting  into  a  cor- 
responding concave  surface  of  another,  and  second  because  of  the  in- 
terlocking of  the  crooked  hairs.  The  style  is  about  4  mm.  long  and 
arises  from  the  upper  edge  of  the  exposed  surface  of  the  drupe,  appear- 
ing to  come  from  between  the  drupelets. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Receptacle,  i.  The  Epidermis  resembles  somewhat  the  epicarp  of 
the  fruit,  but  the  hairs  are  less  numerous  and  usually  thicker  walled. 

2.  Cortex.     As  no  sarkogen  layer  is  developed  in  the  raspberry  the 
cortex  layer  is  thin,  the  bulk  of  the  receptacle  being  pith. 

3.  Bundles.     It  follows  from  what  has   been  stated  that  the  main 
bundles  run  near  the  surface  of  the  receptacle.     They  are  shorter  and 
more  strongly  developed  than  in  the  strawberry,  with  larger  and  more 
numerous  vessels. 

4.  The  Pith  consists  of  round  parenchyma  cells,  devoid  of  cell-contents, 
with  intercellular  spaces. 

Pericarp,  i.  The  Epicarp  (Fig.  262,  Epi]  Fig.  263)  on  the  facets  of  the 
drupelets  consists  entirely  of  polygonal  .cells,  but  on  the  exposed  surfaces 
consists  of  polygonal  cells  and  hairs,  the  hairs  often  being  so  numerous 
that  they  occur  at  two  to  four  of  the  angles  of  the  polygonal  cells.  Five 
or  six  cells  frequently  meet  at  the  base  of  a  hair,  forming  a  rosette  about 
it.  The  hairs  vary  greatly  in  length,  up  to  700  //,  and  are  seldom  over  10  p 
broad.  Most  of  them  have  thin  walls  (0.5  to  1.5  //)  of  nearly  uniform 
thickness  (h) ;  but  some  of  the  longer  forms  have  thick  walls  and  a  narrow 
lumen  resembling  the  strawberry  hair  (hf).  The  thin-walled  hairs  are 
commonly  sinuous. 

2.  Hypoderm   (Fig.    262,   Hy).     Two  or  more  cell-layers  of  collen- 


RED  RASPBERRY.  351 

chyma  form  the  hypoderm,  a  water  tissue  serving  to  retard  the  evapora- 
tion of  the  fruit  juice. 

3.  Mesocarp  (Fig.  262,  Mes).  The  outer  two  or  three  layers  of  the 
mesocarp  consist  of  isodiametric  cells  with  intercellular  spaces,  inter- 
spersed with  crystal  cells;  but  further  inward,  at  least  in  the  thicker 
portion  of  the  fruit,  the  cells  are  enormously  elongated  in  radial  directions 
and  are  without  intercellular  spaces.  Tschierske  points  out  that  the 
succulent  nature  of  the  fruit  results  from  the  radial  growth  of  cells,  not 
as  in  the  strawberry  from  the  formation  of  numerous  isodiametric  cells  by 
a  meristematic  layer. 

As  in  all  the  species  of  Rubus,  cells  with  crystal  clusters  are  common, 


stox 


r^     ""^^SS^^W^ 

FIG.  263.     Red  Raspberry.     Epicarp  with  h'  straight  hair,  h  sinuous  hairs,  and  sto  stoma. 

Yi6o.     fWiNTON.') 


Xl6o.       (WlNTON.) 

particularly  near  the  base  of  the  style.     Reticulated  cells  occur  in  the 
inner  layers  adjoining  the  endocarp. 

4.  Outer   Endocarp  (Fig  262,  F;  Fig.  264,  //).     Owing  to  the  deep 
wrinkles,  the  thickness  of  this  coat   is  exceedingly  variable.     As   in  the 
strawberry,   the    sclerenchyma    fibers    are    longitudinally    arranged    and 
cross  those  of  the  inner  endocarp  at  right  angles.      The  fibers    are    a 
little  narrower  than  in  the  latter  fruit  and  in  cross  sections  are  usually 
elliptical  polygonal,  with  the  longer  diameters  in  radial  directions. 

5.  Inner  Endocarp  (Fig.  262,  F'',  Fig.  264,  <?/).     The  fibers  of  this  coat, 
of  which  there  are  four  or  more  thicknesses,  are  the  same  as  in  the  outer 
endocarp,  but  run  transversely  about  the  fruit. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  264,  S).  The  seed  coats  of  the  bramble  fruits 
resemble  closely  those  of  the  stone  fruits,  the  chief  difference  being  that 
the  epidermal  stone  cells  are  wanting. 


352 


FRUIT. 


1.  Epidermis  (ep).    The  cells  are  polygonal  in  surface  view,  the  average 
diameter  being  35  JJL  and  the  maximum  70  ft.     In  transverse  section  they 
are  cushion-shaped,  with  a  cuticularized  outer  wall. 

2.  Nutritive  Layer  (p).     The  cells  in  this  layer,  having  fulfilled  their 
mission,  are  empty  and  are  often  more  or  less  collapsed. 


If— - 


>End 


qf- 


FIG.  264.  Red  Raspberry.  Endocarp  and  outer  portion  of  seed  in  cross  section.  End 
endocarp  consists  of  //  longitudinally  extended  fibers  and  qf  transversely  extended 
fibers;  S  spermoderm  consists  of  ep  epidermis,  p  parenchyma  (nutritive  layer),  and  iep 
inner  epidermis;  N  perisperm;  E  endosperm  with  k  aleurone  grains.  Xsoo.  (WINTON.) 


3.  Brown  Layer  (iep).  The  inner  layer  of  the  spermoderm  consists 
of  cells  of  the  same  kind  as  in  the  outer  epidermis,  but  only  about  half 
as  large,  the  maximum  diameter  in  surface  view  being  30  /*  and  the  average 
20  //.  These  cells  are  readily  distinguished  from  those  of  the  neighbor- 
ing layer  by  their  thicker  walls  and  yellow -brown  color. 


RED  RASPBERRY. 


353 


Perisperm  (Fig.  264,  N).  As  in  the  strawberry,  all  that  remains  of 
this  tissue  is  the  layer  of  obliterated  cells,  which  in  section  appears  as  the 
thickened  outer  wall  of  the  endosperm. 

The  Endosperm  (Fig.  264,  E)  is  made  up  of  aleurone 
cells  with  remnants  of  other  cells  adjoining  the  embryo. 
On  the  two  broader  sides  of  the  elliptical  section  there 
are  five  or  six  cell-layers,  but  the  number  diminishes 
toward  both  the  ventral  and  dorsal  sides,  where  there 
are  only  two  or  three. 

Embryo  (Fig.  262,  Em).  The  structure  of  the 
embryo  is  practically  the  same  as  in  the  strawberry. 

Style  (Figs.  265  and  266).  i.  The  Epidermal  Cells 
(ep)  are  much  smaller  than  in  the  strawberry,  and 
owing  to  numerous  wrinkles  on  the  surface  are  not  so 
transparent.  These  wrinkles  may  be  brought  out 
clearly  either  by  treating  specimens  with  iodine  as 
recommended  by  Tschierske,  or  better,  by  bleaching 
with  Javelle  water  and  staining  with  safranin.  On  the 
broadened  basal  portion  of  the  style  are  scattering 
hairs  like  those  of  the  epicarp. 

2.  Bundles.  After  heating  the  style  with  dilute 
alkali,  the  vessels  (sp)  and  accompanying  isodiametric 
crystal  cells  (k)  are  clearly  evident. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Styles  and  stones  (seeds  with  inclosing  endocarp) 
are  evident  to  the  naked  eye. 

The  styles  (Figs.  265  and  266)  may  be  examined 
directly  under  the  microscope  as  in  the  case  of  the 
strawberry,  and  are  identified  by  their  length  (4  mm.), 
broadened  base  with  hairs,  and  small,  wrinkled  epider- 
mal cells.  Vessels  and  crystal  cells  are  also  striking 
elements. 

The  stones  (Fig.  262,  ///,  IV)  are  distinguished 
from  seeds  of  other  genera  by  their  characteristic 
wrinkled  surface  and  from  blackberry  stones  by  their 
smaller  size.  Cross  sections  (Fig.  264)  show  the  two 
layers  of  endocarp,  the  spermoderm  with  cells  of  the 
outer  epidermis  twice  the  diameter  of  those  of  the  inner  epidermis,  the 
endosperm  of  several  cell  layers,  and  the  embryo. 


FIG.  265.   Raspberry. 
Style    and   stigma. 

X32.       (WlNTON.) 


354  FRUIT. 

The  epicarp  (Fig.  263),  the  hairs  of  which  are  mostly  blunt,  narrow 
(10  /*),  thin- walled  and  sinuous,  also  the  crystal  cells  of  the  underlying 
mesocarp,  may  be  readily  found  in  mounts  prepared 
from  the  gelatinous  portion  of  the  product.  The 
hairs  are  easily  distinguished  from  those  of  the 
peach  and  apricot  which  are  broad  (10-25  /*)> 
nearly  straight,  and  have  walls  thicker  than  the 
breadth  of  the  lumen.  Vascular  elements  are  almost 
FIG.  266.  Raspberry.  entirely  wanting,  as  the  receptacle  is  not  picked 

Style  in  surface  view.       with  the  fruit. 

ep  epidermis;  sp  spiral 

vessel;  k  crystal  cells.  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.67i-674:  Villierset  Collin  (42). 
MARPMANN:  Beitrage    zur    mikroskopischen  Untersuchung    der  Fruchtmarme  laden. 

Ztschr.  angew.  Mikr.  1896,  2,  102. 
TSCHIERSKE:  Beitrage   zur   vergleichenden   Anatomie    und   Entwickelungsgeschichte 

einiger  Dryadeenfruchte.     Ztschr.  Naturwissenschaft.  1886,  59,  612. 
WINTON:  Beitrage  zur  Anatomie  des  Beerenobstes.     Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm. 

1902,  5,  785.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1902,  288. 

BLACK   RASPBERRY. 

Rubus  occidentalis  L.,  a  native  of  the  northern  United  States,  is 
the  parent  of  the  black  varieties.  It  differs  from  the  red  raspberry 
chiefly  in  the  smaller  size  of  the  drupelets  and  their  deep  purple-black 
color,  due  to  the  dark  claret-red  cell  juice.  The  pits  of  both  are  about 
the  same  size  and  shape. 

The  black  raspberry  has  practically  the  same  microscopic  structure 
as  the  red  species. 

Black  raspberry  jam  or  preserve  is  of  a  deep  claret-red  color  and 
the  seeds  are  stained  the  same  color. 

BLACKBERRY. 

Rubus  jruticosus  grows  wild  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  but  is  sel- 
dom cultivated. 

In  North  America  three  native  species  are  of  importance:  the  tall 
blackberry  (R.  nigrobaccus  Bailey),  the  short  cluster  blackberry  (R.  nigro- 
baccus  var.  sativus  Bailey),  and  the  dewberry,  or  running  blackberry 
(R.  mllosus  Aiton).  These  are  not  only  common  wild  plants,  but  have 
given  rise  to  numerous  cultivated  varieties.1 

1  Bailey:  The  Evolution  of  our  Native  Fruits.     London,  1898,  366,  379. 


BLACKBERRY. 


355 


In  macroscopic  and  microscopic  structure  the  berries  of  all  the  species 
named  are  practically  alike. 

The  blackberry  agrees  with  the  raspberry  in  general  structure,  but 
differs  in  the  following  details:  (i)  The  drupelets  are  glabrous  or,  in 


,sto 


FIG.  267.     Blackberry   (Rubus  nigrobaccus) .     Outer   layers   of   pericarp  in   surface   view. 
epi  epicarp  with  sto  stoma;    hy  hypoderm;    k  crystal  cells.     Xi6o.     (WiNTON.) 

• 

the  case  of  the  dewberry,  sparingly  hairy.     (2)  The  drupelets  are  firmly 

attached  to  the  receptacle  by  broad  bases  and  do  not  separate  from  the 

latter  on  picking  the  fruit.     There  is  really  no 

epidermis   of   the  receptacle   as   the   surface   is 

almost  completely  covered  by  the  bases  of  the 

drupelets,  the   epicarp  of  one  being  continuous 

with  that  of  the  adjoining  drupelet.     (3)  As  may 

be  seen   from  Fig.  268,  the  pits   resemble  those  FIG 

of  the   raspberry  in  shape    and  markings,  but 

are  much  larger.      (4)  The  styles  (Fig.  269)  are 

but  2  mm.  long  and  commonly  arise  from  a  marked  depression  in  the 

drupelet.    They  are  free  from  hairs  and  do  not  broaden  at  the  base. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Receptacle.  The  structure  of  the  receptacle  differs  in  no  essential 
detail  from  that  of  the  raspberry. 

Pericarp  (Fig.  267).  i.  Epicarp  (epi).  The  cells  are  for  the  most 
part  elongated,  the  longer  diameters  extending  in  latitudinal  directions 
on  the  sides  of  the  drupelets,  and  in  concentric  circles  about  the  styles. 
Stomata  are  always  present,  hairs  never  in  R.  nigrobaccus,  seldom  in 
R.  villosus. 


Blackberry. 
Stone,    Xi     and    X32. 

(WlNTON.) 


356 


FRUIT. 


2.  Hypoderm  (hy).     As  in  the  epicarp,  the  cells  are  commonly  elon- 
gated, but  are  much  larger  and  extend  in  longitudinal  directions. 

3.  Mesocarp.     This   layer  is  much   the  same   as  in  the    raspberry. 
Crystal  clusters  (k)  are  numerous,  especially  near  the  surface. 

4.  Endocarp.    As  in  the  raspberry,  the  sclerenchymatized  fibers  of 
the  endocarp  have  secondary  and  tertiary  membranes  and  run  longi- 
tudinally in  the  outer,  and  latitudinally  in  the  inner 
layer.     Both  coats,  however,  are  thicker  than  in  the 
raspberry,  the  inner  consisting  of  6-10  cell -layers. 

Spermoderm.  It  has  been  noted  that  the  outer 
epidermis  of  the  raspberry  spermoderm  is  made  up  of 
polygonal  cells  with  about  twice  the  diameter  of  those 
in  the  inner  epidermis.  The  reverse  is  true  in  the  case 
of  the  blackberry,  the  spermoderm  being  much  the 
same  as  a  raspberry  spermoderm  turned  inside  out. 
The  average  diameter  of  the  outer  epidermal  cells  is 
about  25  /*,  the  maximum  40  /*,  whereas  the  average 
diameter  of  the  inner  epidermal  cells  is  40  //  and  the 
maximum  60  /*. 

Style  (Fig.  269).  The  epidermal  cells  are  about 
the  same  size  as  in  the  raspberry,  but  are  not  wrinkled 
to  any  appreciable  extent.  Hairs  are  entirely  wanting. 
Crystals  and  vessels  are  conspicuous  in  alkali  prepa- 
rations. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

FIG.  269.  Blackberry.  Examination  of  blackberry  preserves  is  made  as 
X32.  TWINTO™'  described  under  raspberry.  Styles  (Fig.  269)  are  less 
numerous  than  in  the  latter  and  are  distinguished  by 
their  shorter  length,  and  the  absence  of  hairs  and  wrinkles.  In  cooked 
products  it  is  not  usually  evident  that  the  styles  arise  from  a  depression 
in  the  drupelet.  The  seeds  (Fig.  268)  are  larger  than  in  raspberries,  but 
in  histological  structure  are  very  similar.  They  are,  however,  distin- 
guished from  the  latter  by  the  thicker  inner  endocarp  and  by  the  fact  that 
the  cells  of  the  outer  epidermis  of  the  spermoderm  are  about  half  the 
diameter  of  those  of  the  inner  epidermis;  whereas,  in  the  raspberry  the 
reverse  is  true.  In  blackberry  preserves,  unlike  that  made  from  rasp- 
berries, hairs  are  few  or  entirely  absent;  but  tissues  of  the  receptacle, 
notably  the  vascular  elements,  are  present. 

Compared  with  the  strawberry,   the  bundles   are  shorter  but   more 


BLACKBERRY.     RED   CURRANT.  357 

strongly  developed,  with  larger  and  more  numerous  vessels.     Elongated 
epidermal  cells  and  crystal  clusters  are  also  distinguishable. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

GODFRIN:  Etude  histologique  sur  les  tegument  seminaux  des  Angiospermes.     Soc.  d. 

Sci.  d.  Nancy,  1880,  109. 
LAMPE:  Zur  Kenntniss  des  Baues  und  der  Entwickelung  saftiger  Fruchte.     Ztschr. 

Naturw.  1886,  59,  295. 
WINTON:  Beitrage  zur  Anatomic  des  Beerenobstes.     Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm. 

1902,  5,  785.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1902,  288. 


SAXIFRAGACEOUS  FRUITS  (Saxtfragacea). 

The  bush  fruits  of  this  family  yield  many-seeded  berries,  with 
withered  remains  of  the  floral  parts  at  the  extremity.  The  epicarp  is 
either  smooth  (red  currant),  glandular  (black  currant),  or  prickly  (some 
species  of  gooseberry).  Only  in  the  currants  is  the  endocarp  sclerenchy- 
matized.  The  seeds  are  characterized  by  the  large  inflated  epidermal 
cells,  and  the  crystal  layer  of  the  spermoderm,  the  bulky  thick-walled 
endosperm  containing  aleurone  grains,  and  the  minute  embryo. 


RED   CURRANT. 

Both  the  red  and  white  garden  varieties  of  currant  are  derived  from 
the  European  species,  Ribes  rubrum  L. 

The  calyx  tube  is  united  with  the  ovary,  and  the  fruit  (a  true  berry) 
bears  on  the  summit  the  shriveled  remains  of  the  floral  parts  (Fig.  270, 
7).  The  deeply  five-cleft  bell-shaped  calyx  tube  bears  in  its  throat  five 
petals  much  smaller  than  the  calyx  lobes  and  alternating  with  them,  and 
five  stamens  opposite  the  lobes.  The  short  style,  about  half  the  length 
of  the  calyx,  is  deeply  two-cleft.  The  midribs  of  each  of  the  floral  envelopes, 
ten  in  number,  are  continued  in  the  fruit  in  the  form  of  longitudinal  veins 
and  are  clearly  seen  through  the  transparent  epicarp.  The  anatropous 
seeds,  one  to  eight  in  number,  are  borne  on  two  parietal  placentas  (Fig. 
270,  //).  As  a  result  of  the  crowded  arrangement  they  are  usually  flattened 
on  one  or  more  sides.  The  outer  spermoderm  (Fig.  270,  ///,  5)  is  gelat- 
inous and  transparent,  and  through  it  may  be  seen  the  delicate  thread- 
like raphe  and  the  brown  hard  inner  spermoderm.  The  minute  embryo 
(Fig.  270,  ///,  Em)  is  embedded  in  the  base  of  the  endosperm. 


358 


FRUIT, 


Divested  of  the  gelatinous  coat  the  seeds  are  from  4  to  5  mm.  long  and 
from  3  to  4  mm.  broad  (Fig.  270,  IV  and  V). 


HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp  (Fig.  271).     i.  Epicarp  (epi).     In  parts  the  walls  are  thick- 
ened with  narrow  pores;   in  other  parts  the  walls  are  not  thickened  at 


FlG.  270.  Red  Currant  (Ribes  rubrum).  I  fruit,  X  i.  //  cross  section  of  fruit  with  seeds, 
XL  ///  longitudinal  section  of  seed,  X8:  S  gelatinous  epidermis  of  spermoderm; 
S'  inner  spermoderm;  R  raphe;  E  endosperm;  Em  embryo.  IV  seed  deprived  of 
gelatinous  coat,  XL  V  same  as  IV,  X8.  (WiNTON.) 

all,  or  only  here  and  there.  Frequently  strongly  beaded  cells  are  divided 
by  thin  partitions  into  two  daughter  cells.  Stomata  are  numerous.  Cross 
sections  show  that  the  cells  are  considerably  broader  than  thick. 


FlG.  271.  Red  Currant.  Outer  layers  of  pericarp  in  surface  view,  epi  epicarp  with  sto 
stoma;  hy  hypoderm;  B  vascular  bundle  or  vein  seen  through  the  transparent  outer 
layers  of  the  fruit.  Xi6o.  (WiNTON.) 

2.  Hypoderm  (hy).     Two  or  three  cell  layers  of  collenchymatous  cells 
underlie  the  epidermis.     In  surface  view  they  are  polygonal  with  diam- 


RED  CURRANT.  359 

eters  twice  or  more  those  of  the  epidermal  cells.     Their  collenchymatous 
character  is  seen  in  a  cross  section. 

3.  Mesocarp.     The    cells    are   isodiametric    (100  -300  /*),   with   thin 
walls  and  numerous  intercellular  spaces.     Radiating  from  the  bundles 
are  elongated  cells.     Crystal  rosettes  abound  in  the  inner  layer. 

4.  Endocarp  (Fig.   272).     Unlike  the  gooseberry,  the  currant  has  a 
sclerenchymatous  endocarp.     The  long  cells  are  arranged  in  groups,  each 


FIG.  272.     Red  Currant.     Endocarp  in  surface  view.     Xi6o.     (WiNTON.) 

group  consisting  of  five  to  fifteen  cells  side  by  side.  The  cells  of  adjoin- 
ing groups  may  extend  either  in  the  same  or  different  directions.  Curious 
fan-shaped  forms  result  from  the  junction  of  several  groups.  As  a  rule 
the  cavity  is  much  thinner  than  the  walls  and  oftentimes  is  reduced  to  a 
mere  line.  Numerous  pores  connect  adjoining  cells  and  some  pierce  the 
walls  separating  these  cells  from  the  mesocarp.  The  cells  range  in  length 
up  to  500  /*;  the  thickness  of  the  double  walls  is  5-20  //. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  273,  S).  i.  Mucilage  Cells  (aep).  The  outer 
layer  consists  of  large,  thin-walled  cells  filled  with  gelatinous  matter. 
They  are  about  90  /*  in  tangential  diameter  but  often  have  a  radial  diam- 
eter of  over  500  /z.  On  the  outer  surface  they  are  usually  convex.  Owing 
to  the  great  size  of  the  cells,  this  coat,  although  but  a  single  cell-layer 
thick,  forms  a  considerable  part  of  the  bulk  of  the  seed. 


36o 


FRUIT. 


2.  Parenchyma  (p).     Beneath   the  mucilage  cells   are    several   layers 
of    more    or    less    flattened    parenchymatous    cells    with    intercellular 
spaces.     The  cells  of  the  inner  layers  are  smaller  and  flatter  than  in  the 
outer. 

3.  Crystal  Layer  (Figs.  273  and  275,  k).     In  surface  view  the  deep 
brown,  thick- walled  cells  of  this  layer  are  sharply  polygonal  with  diam- 


aep  — 


"FiG.  273.  Red  Currant.  Seed  in  cross  section.  6"  spermoderm  consists  of  aep  gelatinous 
outer  epidermis,  p  parenchyma  (nutritive  layer),  k  crystal  layer,  and  iep  brown  layer 
(inner  epidermis);  N  peri  sperm;  E  endosperm.  X3oo.  (WiNTON.) 

eters  from  8  to  20  ,«.  The  middle  lamella  is  colorless,  the  thick  mem- 
brane, brown.  Each  cell  contains  a  single  monoclinic  crystal,  which 
nearly  or  completely  fills  the  cell  cavity. 

With  crossed  Nicol  prisms  these  crystals  appear  as  luminous  spots  in 
the  black  background,  disappearing  on  addition  of  a  drop  of  hydrochloric 
acid.  In  section  it  may  be  seen  that  only  the  radial  and  inner  walls  are 
thickened,  and  that  as  a  consequence  each  crystal  lies  close  to  the  thin 
outer  wall. 

4.  Inner  Epidermis  (Figs.  273  and  275,  iep).  Like  the  crystal  layer, 
the  inner  epidermis  is  of  a  deep-brown  color,  but  this  color  is  due  to  cell- 
contents,  not  to  thickened  cell-walls.  The  cells  are  longitudinally  elon- 
gated, varying  in  length  up  to  150/4  and  in  width  from  4  to  9  p..  Both 
this  layer  and  the  crystal  layer  are  readily  separated  from  the  endosperm 
by  soaking  in  dilute  alkali  and  scraping. 


RED  CURRANT. 


361 


Perisperm  (Fig.  273,  N).  A  cross  section  of  the  seed  shows  a  cellulose 
band  about  10  /*  thick  between  the  spermoderm  and  the  endosperm, 
consisting  of  the  obliterated  cells  of  the  nucellus. 

The  Endosperm  (Figs.  273  and  275,  E)  consists  of  thick- walled  cells 
containing  aleurone  grains  and  fat.  In  the  outer  layers  the  cells  are 
radially  elongated,  with  walls  of  even  thickness  (2  /*),  but  in  the  center  of  the 
seed  they  are  isodiametric,  often  with  knotty  thickened  walls  (Fig.  274). 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Cells  of  the  endocarp  (Fig.  272)  are  the  most  conspicuous  and  char- 
acteristic elements  of  preserves.  Fragments  of  the  epicarp  and  floral 
parts  are  also  evident  but  are  of  less  value  in  identification.  The  outer 
gelatinous  coat  of  the  seed  is  destroyed  by  cooking,  but  the  crystal  layer 
and  the  inner  epidermis  retain  their 
original  form  and  may  be  identified 
in  surface  mounts  (Fig.  275)  prepared 
by  warming  in  dilute  alkali  and 


FIG.  274.  Red  Currant.  Cross  sec- 
tion of  central  portion  of  endo- 
sperm. X  300.  (WiNTON.) 


FIG.  275.  Red  Currant.  Surface  view  of  K 
crystal  layer,  iep  inner  epidermis  of  spermo- 
derm, and  E  endosperm.  X  300.  (WiNTON.) 


scraping  with  a  scalpel.     Sections  of  the  seed  are  sometimes  useful,  but 
as  a  rule  an  examination  of  the  spermoderm  in  surface  view  is  sufficient. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Blyth  (5);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42). 
GARCIN  :  Recherches  sur  I'histogenese  des  pericarpes  charnus.     Ann.  Soc.  nat.  Bot.  Ser. 

YII,  1890,  12,  175. 
LAMPE:  Zur  Kenntniss  des  Baues  und  der  Entwickelung  saftiger  Friichte.     Ztschr. 

Naturwissenschaft.  1886,  59,  295. 
WINTON:  Beitrage  zur  Anatomie  des  Beerenobstes.     Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm. 

1902,  5,  785.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1902,  288. 


FRUIT. 


BLACK   CURRANT. 

The  Black  Currant  (Ribes  nigrum  L.),  a  native  of  the  Old  World,  is 
cultivated  both  in  Europe  and  America. 

In  external  appearance  the  fruit  is  distinguished  from  the  red  currant 
by  its  black  color  and  by  the  longer  floral  parts.  The  seeds  are  some- 
what smaller  and  more  numerous  (about  15  in  each  berry)  than  in  the 
red  varieties. 

The  calyx  is  about  7  mm.  long,  and  the  lobes  are  reflexed.  On 
the  outer  surface  and  on  the  inner  surface  at  the  ends  the  lobes  are 
clothed  with  numerous  hairs;  but  the  throat  is  smooth,  as  are  also  the 
petals  and  the  style.  The  latter  is  entire  for  at  least  three -fourths  its 
length,  but  two-lobed  at  the  end. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  cells  of  the  Epicarp  (Fig.  276,  epi)  are  beaded  and  of  about  the 
same  size  as  in  the  red  currant.  Here  and  there  are  bright-yellow  disc- 


/epi 


FlG.  2  76.     Black  Currant  (Ribes  nigrum) .     epi  epicarp  with  d  gland,  in  surface  view.     X 1 60. 

(WlNTON.) 

shaped  glands  (d)  which  often  exceed  170  fi  in  diameter.  Meyen  noted 
that  they  occur  in  still  greater  numbers  on  the  leaves,  and  that  they  agree 
in  structure  with  the  glands  of  the  hop.  Each  gland  consists  of  a  single 
layer  of  cells  in  the  form  of  a  disc,  joined  in  the  middle  to  the  epicarp 


BLACK  CURRANT.     GOOSEBERRY.  363 

by  means  of  a  short  several-celled  stalk.  The  yellow  oily  secretion  to 
which  the  plant  owes  its  characteristic  odor  and  flavor  is  contained  in 
the  reservoir  formed  by  the  separation  of  the  outer  cuticle  from  the  cells. 

The  Mesocarp,  Endocarp,  and  Seed  have  the  same  general  structure 
as  the  same  parts  of  the  red  currant. 

Under  the  microscope  the  calyx  hairs  have  the  same  appearance 
as  those  on  the  epicarp  of  the  raspberry.  They  are  crooked,  blunt- 
pointed,  thin-walled,  and  vary  in  length  up  to  600  «. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Black  currant  preserves,  jams,  etc.,  have  a  red-black  color,  and  the 
characteristic  spicy  flavor  of  the  fresh  fruit.  They  are  further  distinguished 
from  similar  products  made  from  red  currants  by  the  glands  on  the  epi- 
carp (Fig.  276,)  the  longer  floral  parts,  the  hairs  on  the  outer  surface  of 
the  calyx,  and  the  smaller  seeds. 

The  mesocarp,  endocarp,  and  seed  tissues  of  the  red  and  black  cur- 
rant are  the  same  in  structure. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

LAMPE:  Zur  Kenntniss  des  Baues  und  der  Entwickelung  saftiger  Friichte.     Ztschr. 

Naturw.  1886,  59,  295. 

MEYEN:  Secretionsorgane  d.  Pflanzen.     Berlin,  1837. 
WINTON:  Beitrage  zur  Anatomic  des  Beerenobstes.     Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm. 

1902,  5,  785.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1902,  288. 


GOOSEBERRY. 

The  European  or  prickly  gooseberry  (Ribes  Grossularia  L.)  is  one 
of  the  most  valuable  small  fruits  cultivated  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
Continent,  but  is  seldom  grown  in  America  owing  to  the  mildew  to  which 
it  is  there  subject.  The  varieties  cultivated  in  the  United  States  are 
largely  derived  from  a  smooth  fruited  native  species,  R.  oxyacanthoides  L. 

The  fruit  has  much  the  same  general  structure  as  the  currant,  but  is 
larger  (i  to  2  cm.  in  diameter),  the  calyx  and  style  are  longer  (6  mm.  in 
length),  and  are  pubescent,  and  the  smooth  or  prickly  pericarp  is  thicker 
(Fig.  277).  The  gelatinous  coat  of  the  seed  is  thicker  (often  2  mm. 
thick  on  the  raphe  side),  but  the  seed  freed  from  this  coat  is  about  the 
same  size  as  in  the  currant,  although  somewhat  narrower  and  more  nearly 
terete.  Except  for  the  prickles,  the  European  and  American  gooseberry 
are  identical  in  structure. 


364 


FRUIT. 


HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp,     i.  The  Epicarp   Cells   are   polygonal   and   more 
beaded  like  those  of  the  red  currant. 

The  Prickles  have  a  broad  base  and  are  often  over  i  mm.  long, 
have  a  blunt  point,  others,  a  head  of  globular 
form.     Both  forms   are  shown  in  Fig.  278. 

The  Epidermal  Cells  of  the  prickles  are  elon- 
gated, and  are  arranged  end  to  end  in  longitudinal 
rows.  At  the  base  they  pass  into  the  isodia- 
metric  cells  of  the  epicarp. 

2.  The  Hypoderm  is  the  same  as  in.  the  red 
currant. 


or   less 

Some 


FlG.  277.  American  Gooseberry  (Ribes  oxyacan- 
thoides).  I  whole  fruit,  XL  II  transverse  sec- 
tion of  fruit  with  seeds,  XL  III  seeds  deprived 
of  gelatinous  coat,  X  8.  (WiNTON.) 


FlG.  278.  European  Gooseberry 
(Ribes  Grossularia).  Prickles 
with  and  without  globular  head. 

X32-       (WiNTON.) 


3.  Mesocarp.     This  layer  is  composed  of  extraordinarily  large  cells 
(often  500  fj.  in  diameter),  which  are  evident  to  the  naked  eye  and  are 
separated  from  each  other  by  a  network  of  cells  hardly  50  /*  in  diameter. 
In  the  inner  layers  the  small  cells  are  less  numerous  or  entirely  lacking. 
Crystal  clusters  are  abundant,  particularly  in  the  inner  layers. 

4.  The  Endocarp  consists  of  a  layer  of  parenchyma  cells  with  walls 
so  thin  that  they  are  studied  with  difficulty,  and  is  quite  different  from 
the  sclerenchymatous  endocarp  of  the  currants. 

Spermoderm,  Endosperm,  and  Embryo.  The  microscopic  structure  of 
the  seed  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  the  currant -seed. 

Floral  Parts  (Fig.  279).  The  remains  of  the  floral  parts  are  usually 
deep  brown,  and  can  be  studied  to  advantage  only  after  bleaching,  prefer- 
ably with  Javelle  water,  and  staining.  A  prominent  midvein  runs  from 
the  base  almost  to  the  apex  of  each  of  the  calyx  and  corolla  lobes. 
About  four  secondary  veins  branching  near  the  base,  partly  from  the 
calyx  midrib,  partly  from  the  corolla  midrib,  also  run  nearly  to  the 


GOOSEBERRY. 


365 


apex  of  the  calyx  lobes.    Lateral  branches  from  the  midribs  are  numer- 
ous in  the  corolla,  less  so  in  the  calyx. 

The  epidermal  cells  of  the  calyx  are  for  the  most  part  slightly  elon- 


FIG.  279.      Gooseberry.       Floral   parts. 

(WlNTON.) 


FIG.  280.  Gooseberry.  Epider- 
mis from  margin  of  calyx,  with 
hairs.  X 160.  (WlNTON.) 


gated,  and  are  arranged  end  to  end  in  longitudinal  rows.     Near  the  ends 

of  the  lobes  they  have  wavy  outlines.     The  outer  surface  of  the  calyx 

and  the  upper  part  of  the  inner  surface  bear  only  a 

few  scattering  hairs.     The  calyx  throat,  however,  is 

densely  pubescent.    These  hairs  are  all  thin-walled, 

and  vary  in  length  up  to  i  mm.  or  more,  the  longest 

being  in  the  calyx  throat  (Figs.  280  and  281). 

The  deeply  parted  styles  are  covered  with  epider- 
mal cells,  for  the  most  part  quadrilateral  and  arranged 
end  to  end  in  rows,  and  on  the  lower  half  bear 
numerous  thin- walled  hairs  i  mm.  or  more  in  length. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  epidermis,  mesocarp,  and  seed  have  the  same 
structure  as  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  currant, 
but  the  endocarp  is  not  sclerenchymatized  and  is 
not  evident  in  preserves.  The  floral  parts  (Fig.  279) 
are  of  about  the  same  length  as  in  the  black  currant 
(6  mm.),  but  the  calyx  throat  and  the  styles  bear  FIG.  281.  Gooseberry. 

i  -,      .       /T—          o    \       i  «i  L    •  Epidermis         from 

numerous  long  hairs  (Fig.  281),  whereas  these  parts  in      throat  of  calyx,  with 
the   black   currant    are    smooth,    or   only  sparingly      ^air.    Xl6°- 
pubescent. 


366  FRUIT. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Blyth  (5). 
GARCIN:  Recherches  sur  Phistogenese  des  pericarpes  charnus.    Ann.  Soc.  nat.  Bot.  Se*r. 

VII,  1890,  12,  175. 
MARPMANN:  Beitrage    zur    mikroskopischen    Untersuchung    der   Fruchtmarmeladen. 

Ztschr.  angew.  Mikr.  1896,  2,  97. 
WINTON:  Beitrage  zur  Anatomic  des  Beerenobstes.     Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm 

1902,  5,  785.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1902,  288. 


ERICACEOUS    FRUITS    (Ericacece). 

The  fruits  are  either  several-celled  berries,  each  cell  containing  a 
number  of  seeds  (cranberry,  blueberry),  or  ten-celled  drupes  (huckle- 
berry). 

The  smooth  epicarp  bears  short  triangular  calyx  teeth.  Groups  of 
stone  cells  occur  in  the  mesocarp  of  the  huckleberry,  but  are  lacking  in 
the  mesocarp  of  the  other  species.  The  endocarp  in  the  cranberry  is 
of  thin-walled  elements;  in  the  blueberry,  of  thin- walled  cells  interspersed 
with  groups  of  stone  cells;  in  the  huckleberry,  of  a  dense  mass  of  stone 
cells.  The  spermoderm  of  the  cranberry  and  blueberry  is  characterized 
by  the  elongated,  thick-walled,  porous  cells. 

CRANBERRY. 

Bailey1  states  that  the  cranberry  (Vaccinium  macrocarpon  Ait.),  the 
most  unique  of  American  horticultural  products,  was  first  cultivated, 
or  rescued  from  mere  wild  bogs,  about  1810.  The  varieties  now  known 
are  over  a  hundred,  all  having  been  picked  up  in  bogs,  and  the  annual 
product  in  the  United  States  is  more  than  800,000  bushels. 

The  cowberry,  or  mountain  cranberry,  Vaccinium  Vitis-Idcea  L.,  is 
gathered  in  great  quantities  in  Canada,  where  it  is  used  for  sauces.  It 
is  also  a  native  of  Europe,  where  it  is  much  prized  as  a  culinary  fruit. 

Different  varieties  of  the  cultivated  cranberry  vary  in  Shape  (spherical, 
oval,  pear-shaped),  in  color  (pink,  red,  maroon,  mottled),  and  in  size 
(diameter  up  to  15  mm.). 

The  epicarp  is  smooth,  and  bears  on  the  summit  four  short  tooth- 
like  calyx  lobes,  which  are  usually  bent  inward.  Between  the  calyx  lobes 

1  The  Evolution  of  Our  Native   Fruits.     London,    1898,   414,  424. 


CRANBERRY. 


367 


is  a  circular  spot  with  a  dot  in  the  center,  formed  by  the  dropping  of  the 
floral  parts  (Fig.  282,  /). 

The  berry  is  four-celled,  each  cell  containing  on  a  central  placenta 
a  number  of  seeds  which  fill  only  a  small  part  of  the  otherwise  empty 
cavity  (Fig.  282,  IT). 

In  the  nearly  ripe  fruit  only  the  epicarp  is  colored,  the  other  parts 
being  white;  but  in  the  fully  ripe  fruit  all  the  tissues  are  usually  red. 


FlG.  282.  Cultivated  Cranberry  (V actinium  macrocarpon).  I  berry  seen  from  above, 
X  i.  //  cross  section  of  berry,  XL  ///  seed,  X 8.  IV  cross  section  of  seed,  Xi5: 
S  epidermis  of  spermoderm;  S'  inner  spermoderm;  R  raphe;  E  endosperm;  Em 
embryo.  (WiNTON.) 

The  yellow  short -beaked  seeds  have  a  thick  spermoderm  and  a  bulky 
endosperm  in  the  axis  of  which  is  an  elongated  embryo  of  moderate  size, 
consisting  chiefly  of  the  radicle  (Fig.  282,  ///  and  IV). 

The  mountain  cranberry  has  practically  the  same  macroscopic  structure 
as  the  cultivated  species,  but  is  much  smaller. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  following  description  applies  to  both  the  cultivated  and  the  moun- 
tain cranberry,  the  two  being  nearly,  if  not  quite,  identical  in  microscopic 
structure. 

Pericarp,  i.  The  Epicarp  (Fig.  283)  is  very  simple  in  structure, 
with  cells  as  seen  in  surface  view  from  20 
to  50  jj.  in  diameter,  and  cell-walls  3  fj.  thick. 
Cross  sections  show  that  this  layer  is  about 
25  /j.  thick  and  that  the  cuticle  is  strongly 
thickened. 

2.  The  Hypoderm  (Fig.    283)  is   for  the 
most  part  only  one  cell-layer  thick,  and  the 
cells  are  more  or  less  isodiametric  in  cross- 
section.     Evaporation  is  largely  prevented  by    FlG  2g 
the   thick  cuticle,  rendering  a  more  strongly 
developed  hypoderm  unnecessary. 

3.  The  Mesocarp  cells  are    mostly    isodiametric,   and   range   up   to 


Cultivated  Cranberry. 
Epicarp  and  hypoderm.    X 160. 

(WiNTON.) 


368 


FRUIT. 


200  jj.  in  diameter,  but  in  the  partitions  between  the  fruit  cavities  they  are 
somewhat  smaller. 

4.  Endocarp  (Fig.  284).     The  cells  are  for  the  most  part  longitudi- 
nally extended  and  are  more  or  less  curved  or  wavy  in  outline.     The  in- 


FIG.  284.     Cultivated  Cranberry.     Endocarp  with  stoma.     Xi6o.     (WiNTON.) 

distinctly  porous  cell-walls  are  somewhat  thicker  than  those  of  the  meso- 
carp,  but  unlike  those  in  some  Vaccinium  species  are  not  conspicuously 
thickened.  Although  stomata  are  entirely  lacking  in  the  epicarp,  they 
occur  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  endocarp. 

Spermoderm.  i.  Epidermis  (Fig.  285,  ep\  Fig.  286).  Of  all  the 
tissues,  this  is  the  most  characteristic  and  remarkable.  The  cells  in  the 
mature  seed  range  in  width  up  to  100  /*,  and  in  length  up  to  400  /*,  but 
in  abortive  seeds  are  much  smaller.  As  is  seen  in  jcross  section,  the 
outer  walls  (Fig.  285,  ep)  are  thin  and  convex,  but  the  deep-yellow  or 
brown  inner  and  radial  walls  are  sclerenchymatously  thickened  (double 
walls  often  20  //),  and  in  addition  the  radial  walls  and  sometimes  the 
outer  and  inner  walls  have  a  transparent  mucilaginous  layer  of  distinctly 
stratified  structure  which  nearly  fills  the  cell  cavity.  Treated  with  chlor- 
zinc  iodine  the  mucilaginous  formation  is  stained  blue,  the  cell- walls 


CRANBERRY. 


369 


proper  remaining  yellow.     In  V.   Vitis-Idaa  the  outer  and   inner  walls 
often  have   a  swollen  layer   (Fig.    287).     The   sclerenchymatous   radial 


ep 


m. 


FIG.  285.  Cultivated  Cranberry.  Seed  in  cross  section,  ep  epidermis  of  spermoderm 
with  sclerenchymatized  and  mucilaginous  layers;  m  inner  spermoderm;  E  endosperm. 
Xi6o.  (WINTON.) 


FIG.  286.     Cultivated    Cranberry.     Epidermis    of    spermoderm    in    surface    view.     Xi6o. 

(WlNTON.) 

ind  inner  walls  are  pierced  with  numerous  pores  which,  in  the  immature 
>r  abortive  seeds,  are  nearly  circular,  but  in  the  fully  ripe  seeds  are  usu- 
illy  much  elongated. 


37°  FRUIT. 

2.  Inner  Layers  (Fig.  285,  m).  The  remainder  of  the  sper mo- 
derm  consists  of  two  or  three  layers  of  large  thick-walled  porous  cells, 
the  innermost  layers  being  more  or  less  collapsed.  In  dried  or  cooked 
specimens,  all  of  these  cells  are  collapsed. 

The  Endosperm  (Fig.  285,  E)  contains  aleurone  grains  but  no  starch. 

The  Embryo  is  not  remarkable. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Fragments  of  the  epicarp  (Fig.  283)  and  endocarp  (Fig.  284), 
bundles  from  the  mesocarp,  and  seeds,  may  be  found  in  preserves.  The 

large  porous  epidermal  cells  of  the  sper  mo - 
derm,  with  sclerenchymatized  and  mucilage 
layers  are  characteristic  and  may  be  studied 
in  surface  preparations  (Fig.  286).  In  un- 
ripe or  abortive  seeds  these  cells  are  smaller, 
thinner-walled,  and  have  pores  more  nearly 
section  of  spermoderm.  x  160.  round  than  in  the  mature  seeds.  Isolated 

(WlNTON.)  ..         .  .        .      . 

stone  cells  detached  from  the  spermoderm 

of  immature  seeds  by  cooking,  sometimes  occur  in  the  gelatinous  portion 
of  the  preserve. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

WINTON:  Beitrage  zur  Anatomic  des  Beerenobstes.     Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm. 
1902,  5,  785.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1902,  288. 

BLUEBERRY. 

Vaccinium  Myrtillus  L.  grows  over  an  extended  area  in  Europe,  and 
the  berries  are  used  both  as  food  and  as  medicine. 

Among  the  American  species  yielding  edible  berries  similar  to  those  I 
of  the  European  species  are  the  tall  or  swamp  blueberry  (V.  corymbosutm 
L.)  and  two  dwarf  species  (V.  Perinsylvanicum  Lam.  and  V.  Canadenm 
Kalm.),  all  of  which  are  being  introduced  into  cultivation. 

The  berries  of  all  the  species  named  are  black  with  -a  gray-blue  bloom, 
globular,  i  cm.  or  less  in  diameter,  and  are  crowned  by  five  calyx  teeth*! 
Except  for  the  bloom  they  are  hardly  distinguishable  in  external  appear- 
ance from  the  huckleberry,  which  they  further  resemble  in  flavor,  but 
in  internal  structure  the  two  fruits  have  little  in  common.  The  dense 
endocarp  tissue  of  the  huckleberry  is  represented  in  the  blueberry  by 
a  thin  and  soft,  although  partially  sclerenchymatized,  tissue;  furthermore, 


BLUEBERRY. 


371 


the  locules  of  the  former  fruit  contain  but  one  seed,  whereas  in  the  latter 
they  are  several -seeded.  On  the  other  hand,  the  blueberry  and  cran- 
berry, although  strikingly  different  in  color  and  flavor,  are  very  similar 
both  in  gross  and  minute  anatomy. 

HISTOLOGY.1 

The  important  European  and  American  species  have  practically  the 
same  structure. 

Pericarp,  i.  The  Epicarp  consists  of  polygonal  cells  like  those  of 
the  cranberry,  but  the  contents  are  dark  violet  instead  of  red. 

2.  The  Hypoderm  of  collenchyma  cells  is  of  no  special  interest. 

3.  Mesocarp  (Fig.  288).     The  cells  are  for  the  most  part  thin-walled, 
but  here  and  there,  especially  near  the  bundles,  the  walls  are  sclerenchy- 


FIG.  288.     Blueberry   (Vaccimum  Myrtittus).     Endocarp  and  mesocarp  in  surface  view. 

(R.    MtJLLER.) 

matized  without  being  greatly  thickened.  Thick-walled  stone  cells,  such 
as  occur  in  the  mesocarp  of  the  huckleberry,  are  entirely  wanting.  Crystal 
clusters  abound  in  the  inner  layers. 

4.  Endocarp  (Fig.  288).  This  tissue,  consisting  of  a  single  thin  layer 
of  loosely  united  stone  cells,  is  intermediate  between  the  parenchyma- 
tous  endocarp  of  the  cranberry  on  one  hand,  and  the  thick  stone -cell  tissue 
of  the  huckleberry  endocarp  on  the  other.  These  stone  cells  separate 
readily  from  one  another  and  are  remarkable  for  their  diversity  of  size 

1  Based  largely  on  R.  Miiller's  exhaustive  paper  on  the    histology  of    the   European 
blueberry. 


372 


FRUIT, 


and  shape.  Elongated  cells,  15-50  /j.  in  breadth,  usually  predominate, 
although  isodiametric  forms  are  also  common.  Among  the  elongated 
cells  are  distorted  L-,  S-,  and  Y-shaped,  as  well  as  various  grotesque, 
forms.  Quite  as  variable  are  the  isodiametric  cells,  which  are  triangular, 
quadrilateral,  rounded,  or  exceedingly  irregular  with  curious  horn-like 
projections. 

Spermoderm.     i.  The  Outer  Epidermis  (Fig.  289)  is  of  large  elon- 
gated cells,  the  inner  halves  of  which  are  strongly  sclerenchymatized 


FIG.  289.     Blueberry.     Epidermis  of  spermoderm  in   surface   view.     (R.   MULLER.) 

and  porous.  Except  for  the  absence  of  the  mucilaginous  inner  layers  of 
the  walls,  the  structure  is  like  that  of  the  corresponding  coat  of  the  cran- 
berry; 

2.  The  Middle  Layers  are  of  parenchyma  cells,  and 

3.  The  Inner  Layers  of  obliterated  elements  forming  in  cross  section 
a  hyaline  band. 

Endosperm  and  Embryo  contain  aleurone  grains  and  fat. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  epidermis  of  polygonal  cells,  the  curious  stone  cells  of  the  endo- 
carp  (Fig.  288),  and  the  whole  seeds  with  the  sclerenchymatized  epider- 
mis (Fig.  289),  are  easily  found  in  preserves  and  similar  products.  The 
absence  of  large  stone  cells  in  the  mesocarp  and  of  a  dense  endocarp  in- 
closing each  seed,  as  well  as  the  structure  of  the  seed  itself,  distinguishes 
the  fruit  from  the  huckleberry,  while  the  dark  color  of  the  cell- contents 
and  the  presence  of  the  curious  endocarp  stone  cells  furnish  a  ready 
means  of  distinction  from  the  cranberry. 


HUCKLEBERRY. 


373 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

GARCIN:  Recherches  sur  1'histogenese  des  pericarpes  charnus.   Ann.  Soc.  nat.  Bot.  SeY 

VII,  1890,  12,  175. 
LAMPE:  Zur  Kenntniss  des  Baues  und  der  Entwickelung  saftiger  Friichte.    Ztschr. 

Naturw.  1886,  59,  295. 
MULLER  u  BLAU:  Fructus  Myrtilli.     Pharm.  Post,  Wien.  1902,  35,  461. 


HUCKLEBERRY. 

This  wild  berry  (Gaylussacia  resinosa  Torr.  and  Gray)  is  abundant 
in  the  northern  United  States,  and  furnishes  large  quantities  of  fruit  for 
the  market. 

The  fruit  is  globular  in  form,  blue-black  in  color,  and  i  cm.  or  less 
in  diameter  (Fig.  290,  /  and  //).  It  is  not  a  true  berry,  but  a  ten-celled 
drupe,  the  hard  coverings  of  the  so-called,  seeds 
being  the  inner  walls  of  the  pericarp  cells.  The 
epicarp  is  smooth  and  the  fruit  is  crowned 
with  five-pointed  calyx  lobes  much  like  those 
of  the  cranberry.  In  the  center,  between  these 
lobes,  is  a  small  depression,  the  scar  of  the 
style.  The  pits  are  closely  crowded  about 
the  axis,  and  as  a  consequence  are  wedge- 
shaped  (Fig.  290,  ///  and  IV).  Under  the 
hand  lens  they  have  a  rough  granular  appear- 

ance  FIG.  290.     Huckleberiv  (Gaylus- 

sacia resinosa').     1    fruit   seen 

Within  the  thick  endocarp  is  the  seed  with      from  above,   XL     //cross 

,,.  -,  i          i     11  i  section     of    fruit      Xr.      7/7 

a  thin  spermoderm  and   a  bulky  endosperm;     stone,  xs.     7F  cross  section 
in  the  axis  of  the  endosperm  is  an  elongated     °f  stone'  *8:    E"d  endocarp; 

5  spermoderm ;    E  endosperm ; 
embryo.  Em  embryo.     (WiNTON.) 


HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp,  i.  Epicarp  (Fig.  291,  epi).  Surface  mounts  show  the 
cells  of  this  layer  to  be  much  the  same  in  form  and  size  as  those  of  the 
cranberry  epicarp ;  cross  sections,  however,  show  that  the  cuticle  is  much 
thinner. 

2.  The  Hypoderm  (hy)  is  several  cell  layers  thick,  and  thus  furnishes 
a  protection  against  evaporation,  which  is  not  necessary  in  the  case  of 
the  cranberry,  owing  to  its  thick  cuticle. 


374 


FRUIT. 


3.  Mesocarp  (mes).     Owing  to  the  presence  of  numerous  stone  cells 
(si)  this  layer  is  strikingly  different  from  the  mesocarp  of  the  other  com- 

-epi 


— mes 


FIG.  291.     Huckleberry.     Cross  section  of  outer   portion  of  the   pericarp,    epi  epicarp; 
/£y  hypoderm;  mes  mesocarp;  st  stone  cells.     X  160.     (WlNTON.) 


End 


FIG.  292.  Huckleberry.  Cross  section  of  endocarp  and  seed.  End  endocarp  with  large 
isodiametric  stone  cells  and  //  narrow  longitudinally  extended  fibers;  S  spermoderm; 
AT  peri  sperm;  £  endosperm.  Xi6o.  (WlNTON.) 

mon  small  fruits,  but  resembles  that  of  the  quince  and  pear,  although 
the  stone  cells  are  thinner-walled  and  the  parenchyma  cells  about  them 


HUCKLEBERRY. 


37S 


are  not  strongly  elongated,  and  are  not  arranged  in  a  marked  radiating 
pattern.  These  stone  cells  are  angular  or  elliptical  and  vary  in  diameter 
up  to  200  jj..  The  walls  (20  /JL  or  less  thick)  are  pierced  with  numerous 
small  pores.  They  occur  either  singly  or  in  groups  throughout  the 
mesocarp,  and  may  be  readily  separated  from  the  soft  tissues  by 
pressure. 

4.  Endocarp  (Fig.  292,  end).  Most  of  the  elements  of  this  hard 
coat  are  stone  cells,  about  the  same  size  and  shape  as  those  of  the  meso- 
carp (although  usually  thicker-walled),  but  in  the  wall  adjoining  the 
mesocarp  there  is  a  group  of  narrow  sclerenchyma  fibers  running  parallel 


FIG.  293.     Huckleberry.     Spermoderm  in  surface  view.     Xsoo.     (WiNTON.) 


with  the  axis  of  the  fruit  and  similar  fibers  form  the  inner  layer  of  the 
coat. 

The  pits  of  the  huckleberry  crush  more  readily  between  the  teeth  than 
those  of  the  bramble  fruits,  owing  to  the  larger  size  of  the  stone  cells  and 
the  relatively  larger  cell  cavities. 


376  FRUIT. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  292,  S).  There  is  but  one  layer  of  cells  in  this 
coat,  which  may  be  removed  after  cutting  off  the  endocarp  and  studied 
in  surface  view  (Fig.  293).  Most  of  the  cells  are  of  fantastic  form  with 
wavy  outline,  and  often  reach  a  length  of  200  /*.  The  walls  are  beauti- 
fully reticulated,  the  nearly  circular  pores  being  4  tu  in  diameter.  This 
coat  is  highly  characteristic.  The  raphe  is  not  conspicuous. 

The  Endosperm  (Fig.  292,  E)  and  Embryo  are  much  the  same  in 
structure  and  form  as  those  of  the  cranberry. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  characteristic  elements  of  the  huckleberry  which  may  be  found 
in  preserves  are  the  large  stone  cells  of  the  mesocarp  (Fig.  291)  and 
endocarp  (Fig.  292),  and  the  reticulated  cells  (Fig.  293)  of  the  spermo- 
derm.  Stone  cells  of  the  mesocarp  are  distributed  throughout  the  pre- 
serve, but  those  of  the  endocarp  are  obtained  in  transverse  sections  of 
the  "seeds."  The  spermoderm  is  best  seen  in  surface  preparations. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

WINTON:  Beitrage  zur  Anatomic  des  Beerenobstes.     Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm. 
1902,  5,  785.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1902,  288. 

CITRUS    FRUITS     (Rutacea). 

The  fruits  of  this  family  are  many-seeded  berries  differing  in  size 
and  flavor  but  much  alike  in  structure.  The  following  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  the  orange  suffices  for  an  understanding  of  the  group. 

ORANGE. 

The  orange  (Citrus  Aurantium  L.)  is  the  most  valuable  citrus  fruit 
and  may  be  styled  the  apple  of  subtropical  regions.  It  was  introduced 
into  Europe  from  the  Far  East  at  an  early  period  and  thence  into  America 
in  colonial  times.  Before  the  days  of  rapid  transportation  the  fruit  was 
unknown  in  cooler  regions  except  as  a  greenhouse  product;  now,  how- 
ever, it  is  on  sale  throughout  the  civilized  world. 

Two  marked  varieties  are  recognized,  the  common  sweet  orange 
(var.  Sinensis  Engler)  and  the  bitter  orange  (var.  amara  L.). 

The  fruit  is  a  berry  with  normally  10  two-seeded  locules,  but  as  a  result 
of  cultivation  the  number  of  locules  varies  from  6-12  and  the  number  of 
seeds  also  varies,  being  entirely  absent  in  the  navel  varieties.  The  outer 


ORANGE. 


377 


rind  is  of  a  deep  orange  color  and  consists  of  epicarp,  hypoderm,  and 
outer  mesocarp.  In  this  tissue  are  numerous  cavities,  often  over  i  mm.  in 
diameter,  in  which  is  secreted  an 
essential  oil  consisting  largely  of  a  ter- 
pene,  limonene,  with  small  amounts 
of  citral  and  other  substances.  The 
pimples  on  the  surface  of  the  fresh 
fruit,  becoming  depressions  on  drying, 
mark  the  position  of  these  cavities. 
The  inner  rind  or  inner  mesocarp  is 
white  and  of  much  the  same  texture 
as  blotting-paper.  Each  of  the  seg- 
ments of  the  fruit  is  covered  by  a 
membranous  skin,  the  endocarp, 
while  the  fleshy  part  is  made  up  of 
club-shaped  vesicles  springing  from 
the  inner  surface  of  that  portion  of 
the  endocarp  adjoining  the  rind. 
Each  of  the  seeds  consists  of  two  or 
more  (maximum  12)  embryos  in- 
closed within  a  skin  consisting  of 
spermoderm,  perisperm,  and  rem- 
nants of  endosperm.  Owing  to  the 
mucilaginous  outer  layer  of  the  spermoderm  the  seeds  are  slimy. 


FIG.  29  .  Orange  (Ci'rus  Aurantium). 
Cross  section  of  outer  layers  of  peel  from 
an  unripe  fruit.  Ep  epicarp  with  st  stoma; 
scb  oil  cavity;  gf  fibro-vascular  bundle; 
kr  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate;  He  lumps 
and  crystals  of  hesperidin.  (TscniRCH 
and  OESTERLE.) 


HISTOLOGY. 

Fresh  ripe  oranges  are  usually  obtainable  at  all  seasons  and  in  all 
countries.  Lacking  these,  alcoholic  material  may  be  used,  and  with  the 
advantage  that  the  tissues  are  hardened  and  the  crystals  of  hesperidin  are 
better  defined. 

Pericarp  (Fig.  294).  Transverse  and  tangential  sections  of  the  rind 
and  surface  mounts  of  the  skin  covering  the  segments  should  be  studied, 
also  preparations  obtained  by  crushing  the  isolated  vesicles  of  the  fruit 
pulp  under  a  cover-glass. 

i.  The  Epicarp  Cells  (Ep)  are  rather  thick- walled,  sharply  polygonal, 
and  from  10-25  /"  in  diameter.  Division  of  the  mother  cells  into  daughter 
cells  is  often  evident.  Beautifully  formed  stomata  nearly  circular  in 
outline  occur  in  considerable  numbers;  the  epidermal  cells  about  each 
stoma  being  more  or  less  concentrically  arranged.  The  color  of  the 


378 


FRUIT. 


orange  rind  is  due  to  chromatophores  present  not  only  in  the  epidermis 
but  in  the  subepidermal  layers  and  also  in  the  vesicles  of  the  pulp. 

2.  Hypoderm.      This    tissue    consists    of    rather    small    collenchyma 
cells  in  which  ground  tissue  are  the  oil  cavities  (scb).     These  latter  con- 
tain yellow  drops  of  essential  oil  secreted  by  the  delicate  cells  lining  the 
cavity.     In  the  cells  of  the  ground  tissue  are  numerous  needle-shaped 
crystals  of  a  glucoside,  hesperidin  (He),  which,  in  alcoholic  specimens, 
occur  in  dense  spheroidal  aggregates.     Hesperidin  is  very  abundant  in 
the  green  fruit  of  all  varieties,  but  diminishes  in  amount  on  ripening. 
The  amount  present  at  maturity  in  the  sweet  orange  is,  however,  much 
greater  than  in  the  fruit  of  the  bitter  variety,  a  distinction  of  some  value 
in  the  examination  of  marmalades.     Cells  here  and  there  contain  single 
monoclinic  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate  (kr). 

3.  Mesocarp  (Fig.  295).     The  close  tissue  of  the  hypoderm  passes  by 
degrees  into  a  colorless  spongy  parenchyma  which  makes  up  the  white 


FIG.  295.     Orange.     Spongy  parenchyma  from  inner  layers  of  peel.     (BERG.) 

tissue  forming  the  larger  part  of  the  rind  and  the  middle  layers  of  the 
partition  walls  through  which  the  segments  separate.  Owing  to  the  large 
intercellular  spaces  and  the  narrow  arms  of  the  cells,  this  tissue  presents 
a  striking  appearance  in  tangential  section,  and  is  also  noticeable  in 
the  debris  found  in  marmalades. 

4.  Endocarp.     The  membranous  skin  or  endocarp  inclosing  the  seg- 
ments consists  of  greatly  elongated,  narrow  cells  transversely  arranged. 
These  are  for  the  most  part  thin-walled,  but  individuals  here  and  there 
have  sclerenchymatized  walls  pierced  by  oblique  pores,  making  the  tissue 
especially  noticeable  in  marmalades. 

5.  Vesicles   (Fig.   296).      Tschirch    and    Oesterle    find    that    in    the 
green    fruit    two    forms    of    multicellular    hairs   occur  on  that  portion 


ORANGE.  379 

of  the  endocarp  adjoining  the  rind;  one,  club-shaped  with  smooth  sur- 
face, the  other  more  or  less  knob-shaped  with  glandular  epidermal  cells 
forming  an  aggregate  resembling  a  bunch  of  grapes.  The  former  develop 
into  the  fruit  vesicles,  while  the  latter  remain  small  and  are  not  noticeable 
in  the  mature  fruit.  The  vesicles  are  thread-like  at  the  base,  broadening 
into  the  distended  and  elongated  bodies  containing  the  fruit  juice.  The 
outer  layer  of  these  consists  of  narrow,  fiber-like  cells,  the  walls  of  which, 
although  usually  thin,  occasionally  are  thickened  like  the  sclerenchyma 
cells  of  the  endocarp.  In  the  inner  portion  of  the  vesicle  the  cells  are 


FIG.  296.     Orange.     Multicellular  hairs  from  inner  surface  of  pericarp  of  an  unripe  fruit. 
These  develop  later  into  the  fruit  vesicles.     (TscniRCH.) 

larger  and  more  isodiametric  in  form.  The  yellow  color  is  due  to 
chromat  ophores. 

The  Spermoderm  may  be  studied  in  cross  sections  of  the  entire  seed, 
also  in  preparations  obtained  by  stripping  off  the  outer  and  inner  layers. 

i.  Outer  Epidermis.  The  sclerenchyma  cells  are  12-20  p  broad,  350- 
400  fjL  long,  and  100-225  /*  high?  tne  latter  dimension  not  including  the 
mucilaginous  outer  walls  which  often  swell  to  a  thickness  of  over  150  /*, 
forming  a  structureless  hyaline  layer  about  the  seed.  Being  elongated 
both  longitudinally  and  radially,  in  surface  view  they  appear  like  fibers, 
in  cross  section  like  palisade  cells.  The  outer  ends  of  the  sclerenchy- 
matized  portions  are  of  various  curious  shapes,  appearing  in  cross  section 


380  FRUIT. 

like  beaks  projecting  into  the  outer  mucilaginous  layer.     The  walls  are 
narrower  than  the  cavity  and  are  distinctly  porous. 

2.  The  Middle  Spermoderm  forms  a  close  tissue  in  the  layers  adjoining 
the  epidermis,  passing  into  a  spongy  parenchyma  further  inward. 

3.  Inner  Epidermis.     The  cells  are  elongated  and  contain  a  brown 
substance. 

Perisperm.  Several  layers  of  rather  thick-walled  cells  form  a  tissue 
resembling  the  aleurone  cells  of  various  oil  seeds. 

The  Endosperm  is  either  hot  evident  at  all  or  only  as  an  obliterated 
structureless  membrane. 

Embryo.  According  to  Tschirch  and  Oesterle,  only  one  of  the  several 
embryos  is  a  product  of  the  embryo  sac,  the  others  being  formed  in  the 
outer  layers  of  the  nucellus  at  the  end  of  the  ovule  without  special  fertiliza- 
tion. The  nucellar  embryos  are  none  of  them  so  well  developed  as  the 
one  formed  in  the  embryo  sac,  only  two  at  the  most  being  capable  of 
sprouting.  The  cells  contain  rounded  aleurone  grains  from  2-10  /*  in 
diameter,  with  numerous  globoids. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Orange  Marmalade  usually  contains  slices  of  the  rind.  Under  the 
microscope  we  note  the  sharply  polygonal  epidermal  cells,  also  the 
cells  of  the  hypodcrm  containing  numerous  orange -colored  chromato- 
phores.  Needle-shaped  crystals  of  hesperidin  are  often  found  distributed 
in  the  outer  rind,  especially  if  the  marmalade  was  made  from  the  common 
or  sweet  orange.  After  soaking  for  some  time  in  alcohol  they  are 
evident  as  spherical  aggregates  as  well  as  isolated  raphides.  The  oil 
cavities  (Fig.  294,  scb)  are  macroscopic  objects. 

The  spongy  parenchyma  (Fig.  295)  of  the  inner  mesocarp,  char- 
acterized by  the  narrow  arms  of  the  Cells  and  the  large  intercellular 
spaces,  is  easily  found  in  the  debris,  notwithstanding  the  thinness  of  the 
walls  and  the  absence  of  color. 

Other  characteristic  elements  are  the  fiber-like  cells  of  the  endocarp, 
some  of  which  are  sclerenchymatized,  and  the  elongated  epidermal  cells 
of  the  vesicles,  united  into  a  thread  at  the  base. 

Orange  seeds  are  occasionally  found  in  marmalades.  Their  shape, 
the  presence  of  more  than  one  embryo  and  other  macroscopic  characters 
usually  suffice  for  their  identification.  Under  the  microscope  the  scleren- 
chymatized epidermal  cells,  both  radially  and  longitudinally  elongated, 
are  the  most  conspicuous  features.  In  cross  section  the  outer  beak- 


ORANGE.    LEMON.     CITRON.  381 

like  extremities  extending  into  the  swollen,  apparently  structureless, 
mucilaginous  layer,  identify  them  beyond  doubt  as  seeds  of  a  citrus 
fruit. 

An  examination  of  orange  marmalade  should  include  a  search  under 
the  microscope  for  the  pulp  of  cheaper  fruits  and  vegetables.  All  the 
common  citrus  fruits  have  practically  the  same  structure.  Adulteration 
of  one  with  the  other  is  improbable. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Blyth  (5);  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16);  Hassall 
'19);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40). 
MOELLER,  H.  J. :  Unterscheidung  von  Cortex  Aurantii  fructus  und  Apfelsinenschalen. 

Arch.  Ph.  og.  Ch.  28,  369. 
5TRASBURGER:  Das  Botanisches  Practicum. 

LEMON. 

The  lemon  (Citrus  medica  L.  var.  Limon  L.)  differs  from  the  orange 
n  color,  shape,  and  flavor,  but  not  in  microscopic  structure.  The  seed 
eldom  contains  over  three  embryos  and  often  only  one. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

iiERMANN :  Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  der  Entwickelungsgeschichte  von  Citrus  vulgaris 

Risso  und  anderen  Citrus-Arten.     Arch.  d.  Pharm.  1897,  235,  19. 
loss:  On  the  structure  and  development  of  the  lemon.     Bot.  Gazette,  1890,  15,  262. 

CITRON. 

The  citron  (Citrus  medica  L.  var.  genuina  Engler)  is  much  larger 
.  !ian  the  lemon,  being  often  15-18  cm.  long  and  8-10  cm.  broad.  The 
lick  rind  of  the  green  fruit  (2-4  cm.)  is  candied  for  use  in  cakes  and 
onfections. 

In  cross  section  the  cells  are  nearly  circular,  forming  a  loose  paren- 
liyma  tissue  with  oil  cavities  near  the  outer  surface.  The  epidermal 
ells  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  orange  and  lemon. 

Possible  substitutes  are  the  rind  of  the  water-melon  and  other 
ucurbits. 


382  FRUIT. 


MISCELLANEOUS   FRUITS. 
GRAPE. 

The  Old  World  grape  (Vitis  mnijera  L.  order  Vitacea),  a  native  of 
the  East,  has  been  cultivated  since  time  immemorial  in  Europe,  and 
within  the  past  half  century  has  been  successfully  introduced  into  Cali- 
fornia. 

There  are  innumerable  varieties  differing  in  size,  shape,  and  color  of ; 
the  berries,  as  well  as  in  their  flavor,  acidity,  and  wine  value.     Aside  from 
their  use  for  wine  production,  the  fresh  berries  are  among  the  most  de- 
licious of  table  fruits  and  the  dried  berries    or  raisins    are  every  where  j 
common  sweetmeats. 

Xanti  currants  are  the  dried  seedless  berries  of  a  grape  (V.  vinifera 
var.  apyrena  L.)  grown  in  the  Ionian  Islands  and  neighboring  regions. 

Excepting  those  raised  in  the  Pacific  States,  American  grapes  are 
largely  derivatives  of  V.  Labrusca  L.,  V.  cestivalis  Michx.,  V.  rotundijolid 
Michx.,  and  other  native  species,  although  some  are  hybrids  with 
V.  vinifera.  The  northern  fox  grape  (V.  Labrusca)  is  the  parent  of  the 
Concord,  Hartford,  and  others  of  the  most  valuable  varieties.  Berries 
of  the  American  varieties  are  more  valuable  as  table  fruit  and  for 
preserves  than  for  wine- making. 

The  morphology  of  both  the  fruit  and  the  tissues  is  practically  the 
same  in  all  the  European  and  American  grapes,  excepting  the  Xanti 
currant  and  other  seedless  varieties.  The  berry  has  a  smooth  epicarp 
(often  with  a  bloom),  a  pulpy  mesocarp,  but  lacks  a  conspicuous  endo- 
carp.  Each  of  the  two  locules  normally  contains  two  seeds,  but  often 
only  one,  or  in  the  case  of  the  Xanti  currants,  none  at  all.  The  seeds 
(Fig.  297,  A)  are  pear-shaped,  5-8  mm.  long.  On  the  ventral  side  are  two 
longitudinal  grooves  penetrating  into  the  tissues  of  the  endosperm.  Be- 
tween these  runs  the  raphe,  extending  from  the  hilum  at  the  narrow  end 
of  the  seed  over  the  apex  or  broad  end  to  the  chalaza  situated  on  the 
dorsal  side  near  the  apex,  its  position  being  marked  by  an  oval  depression* 
The  reserve  material  is  largely  in  the  form  of  horny  endosperm.  In 
cross  section,  owing  to  the  grooves  on  the  ventral  side,  the  endosperni 
is  mushroom-shaped.  The  minute  embryo  situated  in  the  narrow  end 
of  the  seed  may  be  isolated  after  soaking  for  some  days  in  ij  per  cent 
alkali. 


GRAPE. 


383 


HISTOLOGY. 

The  Pericarp  of  the  grape  lacks  throughout  characteristic  tissues, 
thus  facilitating  the  identification  of  foreign  matter  with  marked  character- 
istics. Sections  are  easiest  prepared  from  fully  formed  but  not  fully 
mellowed  berries,  hardened  in  alcohol. 

1.  Epicarp.     The  cells  are  polygonal,   15-40  /*  in    diameter,  without 
any  characteristic  features.      Cross  sections  show  that  the  outer  wall  is 
about  7  fj.  thick  with  a  roughened  cuticle. 

2.  The  Hypoderm  Cells  are  tabular  and  increase  in   size  from  with- 
out inward,  passing  finally  into  the  pulp  cells  of  the  mesocarp. 

3.  The  Mesocarp  or  fruit  flesh  consists  of  thin- walled   pulp  cells  and 
nbro-vascular  bundles.      Howard  notes  that  needle-shaped  crystals  are 
present,  also  crystal  fibers  attached  to 

the  bundles.  The  vascular  elements  of 
most  of  the  bundles  are  entirely  spiral 
vessels,  but  the  larger  bundles,  par- 
ticularly of  the  European  grape,  often 
contain  in  addition  pitted  elements. 

4.  Endocarp.     There  is  no  sharply 
differentiated  endocarp,  the  cells  being 
thin- walled  with  the  same  general  char- 
acters as  those  of  the  mesocarp. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  297).  Seeds  of 
any  variety  of  European  or  American 
grape  or  of  raisins  may  be  studied,  as 
observations  indicate  that  all  are  the 
same  in  structure.  Surface  mounts  are 
prepared  of  the  outer  and  inner  spermo- 
derm  and  cross-sections  of  the  entire 
seed.  The  latter  should  be  bleached 
with  Javelle  water  and  stained  with 
safranin  to  bring  out  the  inner  layers 
of  the  spermoderm. 

i.  Outer  Epidermis  (B,  ep).  Seen 
in  surface  view,  the  somewhat  elon- 
gated cells  are  from  20-60  /*  broad, 


D 


FIG.  297.  Grape  (Vitis  vinifera).  A,  I 
seed,  ventral  side  with  chalaza,  natural 
size;  II  dorsal  side  with  hilum,  Xs. 
B  cross  section  of  spermoderm  show- 
ing ep  outer  epidermis,  pa  parenchyma 
with  ra  raphides,  sc  sclerenchyma  layer 
and  iep  inner  epidermis.  C,  D,  scleren- 
chyma layer  of  Malaga  grape  in  surface 
view  and  cross  section.  (T.  F.  HANAU- 

SEK.) 


and  have  thin  colorless  walls.     Cross  sections  show  that  the  outer  wall  .is 
thickened  and  cuticularized. 


384  FRUIT. 

2.  A  Parenchyma  (B,  pa)  of  thin- walled  cells  forms  a  subepidermal 
coat,  which  over  most  of  the  surface  is  from  2-6  cell-layers  thick,   but 
in  the  grooves  is  thicker.     Many  of  the  cells  contain  bundles  of  beauti- 
fully  formed   raphides,  evident   both   in  cross   sections   and   in   surface 
mounts.     The  inner  layers  are  often  colored  brown. 

3.  Stone-cell   Layer  (B,  se;   C\  D).      This    exceedingly    hard    coat 
makes  up  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  spermoderm.     It  varies  in  thick- 
ness from  less  than  75  /*  to  over  500  /*.     In  the  grooves  it  bends  sharply 
and  extends  much  deeper  into  the  endosperm  than  does  the  parenchyma. 
Here,  however,  the  layer  is  thin,  often  less  than  75  a,  whereas  the  paren- 
chyma over  it  is  thicker  than  in  other  parts  of  the  seed.     At  first  sight 
the  dense  brown  tissue  appears  to  consist  of  a  single  layer  of  enormously 
elongated  radially  arranged  cells  forming  a  palisade  layer,  but  on  careful 
examination  it  is  clear  that  only  in  the  thinner  portions  is  there  but  a 
single  layer,  the  thicker  portions  consisting  of  an  aggregate  of  moderately 
elongated  or  even  isodiametric  stone  cells  arranged  end  to  end  in  radial 
rows.    All  of  these  cells  have  strongly  thickened  walls  and  narrow  cavities. 

4.  Lattice  Cells.  This  cell-layer  is  obtained  with  some  difficulty  by 
cutting  open  the  seed,  picking  out  the  endosperm,  and  scraping  the  inner 
surface  of  the  spermoderm  with  a  scalpel.  The  cells  are  for  the  most 
part  longitudinally  elongated,  exceedingly  narrow  (6-10  ;/),  and  have 
numerous  small  but  very  distinct  spiral  reticulations,  giving  them  a  lat- 
ticed appearance.  In  cross  section  the  layer  appears  like  a  thin  brown 
line  of  a  darker  color  than  either  the  stone  cells  or  the  inner  epidermis, 

but  on  bleaching  with  Javelle  water  and  staining,  the  reticulations  are 

evident. 

5.  Inner  Epidermis.     Quite  as  remarkable  as  the   lattice  cells  and 
much  easier  to  find,  are  the  cells  of  this    layer.      They  are  polygonal, 
12-35  I1  m  diameter,  and  have  yellow,  porous  radial  walls,  which  in  surface 
view  are  4-5  /*  broad  and  very   distinctly  beaded. 

Perisperm.  A  hyaline  band  of  obliterated  cells  is  evident  in  cross 
section. 

Endosperm.  The  cells  are  rather  small,  seldom  "exceeding  40  //, 
and  have  moderately  thick  but  distinct  walls.  Sections  mounted  in  tur- 
pentine serve  for  the  study  of  the  remarkable  aleurone  grains  which  have 
been  described  by  Tschirch,  Liidtke,  and  others.  The  large,  irregularly 
spherical,  solitary  grains  reach  25  fi  in  diameter,  and  inclose  either  an 
oxalate  rosette  5-10  /£  in  diameter,  or  a  large  globoid.  The  numerous 
small  grains  are  3-6  /.t  in  diameter. 


GRAPE.  385 

The  Embryo  is  so  minute  and  so  encased  in  hard  tissue  that  it  is 
difficult  to  study.  It  has  no  characters  of  diagnostic  importance. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Grape  Preserves  contain  either  the  whole  fruit  or  only  the  skin  and 
fruit  flesh,  both  of  which  lack  distinctive  characters.  The  epidermal 
cells  are  polygonal,  resembling  those  of  the  currant,  plum,  and  many 
other  products,  and  the  pulp  cells  are  not  characteristic.  Most  of  the 
vascular  elements  of  the  bundle  are  spiral  vessels.  Calcium  oxalate 
raphides  occur  in  greater  or  less  abundance. 

The  seeds  (Fig.  297,  A)  are  recognized  by  their  pear-shaped  form,  the 
two  grooves  on  the  ventral  side  and  the  hilum  depression  on  the  dorsal 
side  near  the  apex.  Cross  sections  of  the  endosperm  are  mushroom- 
shaped.  The  characteristic  tissues  of  the  spermoderm  (B)  include  the 
crystal-bearing  parenchyma,  the  brown  stone  cells,  the  lattice  cells,  and 
the  yellow,  beaded  inner  epidermis.  The  soli- 
tary alcurone  grains  of  the  endosperm  and  the 
oxalate  rosettes  and  globoids  are  also  worthy 
of  notice,  the  rosettes  appearing  most  distinct 
after  the  proteid  matter  has  been  dissolved  in 
dilute  alkali. 

Raisins  are  used  in  cakes,  sweetmeats,  etc., 
either  whole  or  chopped,  with  or  without  the 
seeds.  The  cellular  elements  are  the  same  as 

FIG.  298.    Raisin.    Section  of 

lave  been  noted  under  preserves.     Sugar  crystals        fruit  flesh  showing  crystals 
'Fig.   298)  often  separate  in  the  cells,  and  are 

;een  after  mounting  in  alcohol  or  some  other  medium  in  which  they  are 
lot  soluble. 

Xanti  Currants  contain  the  same  elements  as  the  grape  and  raisin, 
>xcept  that  they  lack  fully  developed  seeds.  Brown  abortive  seeds  are 
ilways  present. 

Grape  Pomace  and  other  refuse  from  the  wine -presses  have  been 
itilized  in  various  ways,  both  as  food  for  the  lower  animals  and  as  adul- 
erants.  • 

Ground  Grape  Seeds  serve  as  adulterants  of  coffee  and  possibly  of 
>ther  products.  They  are  easily  identified  by  the  characters  already 
loted. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (10,  16);  Villiers  et  Collin 
42);Vogl(45). 


386  FRUIT. 

HOWARD:  Microscopical  Examinations  of  Fruits  and  Fruit  Products,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr , 

Bur.  Chem.,  Bull.  66;  103. 
LAMPE:  Zur  Kenntniss  des  Baues  und  der  Entwickelung  saftiger  Fruchte.     Ztschr. 

Naturw.  1886,  59,  295. 
SCHULER:  Studien  iiber  den  Bau  und  die  Zusammensetzung  der  Traubenbeere.     Die 

Weinlaube,  1880,  34. 


FIG. 

T 

According  to  De  Candolle,  the  fig  tree  (Ficus  Carica  L.  order  Arto- 
carpea)  grew  wild  in  prehistoric  times  in  a  subtropical  belt  extending 
from  Syria  on  the  east  to  the  Canaries  on  the  west.  It  was  cultivated 
in  very  early  times  in  Egypt,  Palestine,  Greece,  and  Rome,  and  at  later 
periods  was  introduced  into  France,  Spain,  Persia,  India,  and  finally, 
in  the  eighth  century,  into  China.  Its  culture  in  America  dates  from 
Colonial  times,  and  is  now  an  important  industry  in  California  and  some 
of  the  southern  states. 

The  numerous  minute  flowers  are  borne  on  the  inner  surface  of  a 
fleshy  pear-shaped  receptacle,  communication  with  the  outer  air  being 
through  an  opening  or  eye  in  the  broad  end.  They  are  of  four  kinds: 
i.  Staminate  flowers  with  five-parted  perianth  and  four  stamens,  pro- 
duced in  considerable  numbers  only  in  the  wild  fig  (caprifig,  goat  fig, 
Latin,  caprijicus).  2.  Fertile  pistillate  flowers,  also  known  as  seed  flowers, 
with  three-  to  five-parted  perianth  and  a  long  style.  The  inflorescence 
of  the  Smyrna  fig  and  other  cultivated  sorts  is  largely  or  entirely  of  these 
flowers,  caprification  (fertilization)  being  effected  only  by  the  pollen  of 
the  wild  fig,  which  is  carried  to  the  fertile  flowers  by  a  wasp  breeding  in 
the  latter  variety,  hence  the  time-honored  practice  of  tying  a  flowering 
branch  of  a  caprifig  to  the  cultivated  tree  during  the  flowering  season. 
3.  Gall  flowers,  that  is  abortive  pistillate  flowers  which  do  not  develop 
seeds,  but  serve  as  a  breeding  place  for  the  wasp,  are  instrumental  in  effect- 
ing caprification.  They  are  found  chiefly  in  the  wild  fig,  and  have  short 
styles  of  such  a  length  that  the  wasp  is  able  to  introduce  its  eggs  into 
the  ovary  by  means  of  its  ovipositor.  4.  Abortive  flowers  useless  alike  for 
the  reproduction  of  the  fig  or  of  the  wasp.  In  English  they  are  known 
as  mule  flowers,  and  are  the  only  ones  present  in  numerous  varieties, 
without  perfect  seeds. 

Two  or  even  three  crops  of  figs  are  produced  by  some  varieties.  The 
first  crop  ("  Fichigrossi,"  "  fiori,"  or  "orni"  figs)  is  borne  early  in  the 
spring  on  the  old  wood.  Later  in  the  season  "  forniti  "  figs  are  produced 


FIG.  387 

in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  on  the  lower  portions  of  the  new  shoots,  and 
"cratiri"  figs  on  the  upper  portion. 

The  ripe  fig  is  not  a  true  fruit  but  an  aggregate  of  small  fruits  or  drupe- 
lets in  a  fleshy  receptacle.  In  this  respect  it  is  like  a  strawberry,  but 
the  fruitlets  are  borne  on  slender  stems  over  the  inner  surface,  not  sessile 
in  depressions  over  the  outer  surface  of  the  receptacle.  The  numerous 
yellow,  pear-shaped  "seeds,"  about  2  mm.  long,  found  in  ripe  figs,  whether 
fresh  or  dried,  are  the  seeds  proper  invested  by  the  hard  inner  pericarp 
The  fruit,  strictly  speaking,  is  a  drupe. 

HISTOLOGY. 

If  fresh  figs  are  not  obtainable,  the  preserved  fruit  or  even  dried  figs, 
soaked  up  in  water,  will  answer  for  laboratory  work. 

Receptacle.     The  fleshy  receptacle  forms  the  larger  part  of  the  fig. 

1.  The  Epidermal  Cells  (Fig.  299)  are  small,  usually  less  than  20  /JL 
in  diameter,  and  have  thick  walls.     Here  and  there  they  form  rosettes, 
in  the  center  of  which  are  stout  hairs  (ti) 

with  globular  bases  up  to  20  /*  in  diam- 
eter. Usually  the  hairs  are  short,  some- 
•imes  scarcely  twice  as  long  as  broad,  but 
occasionally  they  reach  a  length  of  300  /*. 
tn  the  dried  fruit  they  are  often  detached, 
ilthough  the  scars  with  rosettes  of  cells 
ibout  them  are  always  evident. 

2.  Hypoderm.     Several  layers  of  small 
:ells  with  thick  walls  underlie  the  epider- 
nis.     They    contain    rosettes    of    calcium 
>xalate. 

3.  Fruit  Flesh  (Fig.  300).     Proceeding 
nward,    the    cells    increase   in    size    but 

liminish  in  wall  thickness,  the  bulk  of  the 

FIG.  299.     Fig(FicusCarica).    Epi- 
1SSUCS  consisting  Of  loosely  arranged,  irreg-        carp  in  surface  view,     h  hairs  and 

ilar  cells  usually  about  100  p  in  diameter.  hair  scars" 
Their  contents  is  largely  sugar,  which  in  the  dried  fruit  is  in  crystalline 
orm.  Branching  and  anastomosing  latex  cells  (m)  ramify  in  great  num- 
>ers  through  the  outer  layers  of  the  fruit  flesh,  also  sparingly  through 
he  inner  layers.  They  are  remarkable  not  only  for  their  numbers  but 
heir  size,  reaching  50  /*  in  breadth.  The  walls  are  delicate  but  distinct. 
Numerous  minute  granules  which  are  colored  intensely  yellow  by  iodine 


388  FRUIT. 

solution  are  suspended  in  the  milky  contents.  On  warming,  the  late? 
coagulates,  forming  large  drops.  The  nbro-vascular  bundles  occurring 
in  the  middle  layer  have  small  spiral  or  reticulated  vessels  usually  only 
15  n  broad,  seldom  over  25  /*. 

4    The  Inner  Epidermis  is  of  delicate-walled  cells,   which  are  not 


K 


FlG    300      Fig.     Longitudinal  section  of  fruit  flesh  showing  p  parenchyma,  K  crystals,  * 
latex  tubes  and  g  vessels.     Xioo.     (MOELLER.) 

easily  found  in  the  ripe  fruit.     Hairs  occur  on  this  as  well  as  on  the 
outer  epidermis. 

Pericarp  (Fig.  301).  The  inner  surface  of  the  receptacle  is  thickh 
beset  with  fruitlets  inclosed  by  the  perianth  and  borne  on  delicate  stems 
The  perianth  and  stems  are  of  thin-walled  tissue  of  no  special  interest. 

1.  The  Epicarp  Cells  are- thin- walled,  more  or  less  radially  elongated 

2.  The  Mesocarp  of  two  or  more  layers  is  also  of  thin-walled,  incon 
spicuous  elements.     Tschirch  and  Oesterle  have  shown  that  in  removing 
the  so-called  seeds  (inner  pericarp  and  seeds  proper)  the  tissues  separat* 
through  this  layer,  part  of  the  cells  adhering   to   the    outer  layers,  par 

to  the  inner. 

3.  Outer  Sclerenchyma  (sc).     This  consists  of  exceedingly  small  ston- 
cells  15  fi  in  diameter  in  a  single  layer. 

4.  The  Endocarp  (st)  or   inner  sclerenchyma  is  composed  of  one  o 
more  layers  of  rounded  angular  stone  cells  about  50  p  in  diameter.     The; 


FIG. 


389 


have  narrow  lumen  and  thick  walls  with  distinct  rings  and  numerous 
branching  pores.  They  are  readily  distinguished  from  the  smaller  cells 
of  the  outer  sclerenchyma. 

Sperm  oderm  (Fig.  302).  The  seed,  which  as  a  rule  does  not  com- 
pletely fill  the  locule,  is  enveloped  by  a  brown  spermoderm,  consisting  of 
two  or  more  layers  of  thin-walled,  polygonal,  isodiametric  or  somewhat 
elongated,  often  compressed  cells  (a,  i). 

The  Endosperm  (Fig.  302,  E)  makes  up  about  half  the  bulk  of  the 


•i 

FIG.  301.     Fig.     Elements  of  peri-  FIG.  302.     Fig.      Elements  of  seed  in  surface  view, 

carp  (shell  of  nutlet)   in    surface  Spermoderm  consists  of  a  colorless  outer  epidermis 

view,  sc  outer  sclerenchyma  layer;  and  i  brown  inner  layers;   £  endosperm;   e  embryo. 

st  stone  cells  of  endocarp.    Xi6o.  Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

(MOELLER.) 

seed.     The  cells   are  thick-walled,   polygonal,   about   50  /*  in  diameter, 
and  contain  proteid  matter  and  fat. 

The  Embryo  (Fig.  302,  e)  is  curved  so  that  cotyledons  and  radicle 
almost  meet.  Small  thin- walled  cells  without  marked  characters  make 
up  the  tissues. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Preserves.  Whole  figs  preserved  in  syrup  or  cordial  are  easily  iden- 
tified by  their  form,  taste  and  the  numerous  "seeds."  If,  however,  they 
are  cooked  to  a  pulp  the  microscope  should  be  brought  into  service. 
i  As  the  fig  is  one  of  the  cheapest  fruits  in  southern  Europe,  it,  like  the 
apple  in  America,  is  used  as  an  adulterant  of  preserves  purporting  to 
be  made  from  more  valuable  fruits.  Marpmann  has  found  tissues  and 
seeds  of  the  fig  in  numerous  samples  of  strawberry,  raspberry,  and  currant 
preserves. 

Fig  Coffee,  consisting  of  the  dried,  roasted,  and  ground  figs,  is  a  popular 
coffee  substitute  in  various  parts ,  of  Europe.  It  is  adulterated  with 
cereal  products,  legumes,  chicory,  and  even,  so  it  is  stated,  with  foreign 


39°  .  FRUIT. 

seeds;  on  the  other  hand,  it  may  itself  serve  as  an  adulterant  of  genuine 
coffee. 

The  microscopic  identification  of  figs,  whether  in  preserves  or  fig 
coffee,  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  tissues  of  both  the  receptacle  and 
seed.  The  important  elements  are  the  outer  epidermis  of  the  recep- 
tacle with  hairs  (Fig.  299),  the  oxalate  crystals  of  the  hypoderm,  the 
latex  tubes  (Fig.  300,  m),  often  30-50  JJL  broad  (in  chicory  usually  less 
than  10  /*),  and  finally  the  "seeds"  (drupelets).  The  macroscopic  appear- 
ance of  the  latter,  also  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  they  crush  between 
the  teeth,  usually  suffices  for  their  identification,  but  in  doubtful  cases 
should  be  supplemented  by  an  examination  of  surface  preparations  (Figs. 
301  and  302)  and  cross  sections.  The  strawberry  and  fig  nutlets  are 
remarkably  similar  in  macroscopic  appearance,  and  a  careful  microscopic 
examination  may  be  necessary  in  some  cases  to  distinguish  them.  The 
crystal  layer  of  the  pericarp  and  the  reticulated  epidermis  of  the  spermo- 
derm  are  characteristic  tissues  of  the  strawberry  nutlet,  with  no  counter- 
parts in  the  fig. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Hanausek,  T.  F.   (10,   16);  Mace  (26); 
Moeller  (29);   Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Schimper  (37);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Vil- 
liers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (43,  45). 
MARPMANN:  Beitrage    zur    mikroskopischen   Untersuchung    der   Fruchtmarmeladen. 

Ztschr.  angew.  Mikr.  1896,  2,  97. 
NEVINNY:  Zur  Verfalschung  des  Feigenkaffees.    Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1887, 1,  85. 


DATE. 

The  date  palm  (Phaznix  dactylijera  L.  order  Palmce)  flourished  in 
the  gardens  of  the  East  long  before  the  Christian  era.  At  the  present 
time  it  is  cultivated  in  all  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean, 
particularly  in  North  Africa  and  Palestine,  and  also  in  Arabia  and 
Persia,  the  fruit  being  the  chief  article  of  diet  in  many  regions.  The 
Arabs  of  the  desert  depend  on  this  tree  for  both  food  and  shelter,  and 
regard  it  with  special  veneration. 

Dates  are  of  many  varieties,  differing  in  size  (4-8  cm.),  form,  and 
color. 

The  mesocarp  is  about  i  cm.  thick  and  contains  a  high  percentage 
of  sugar.  A  hard  endocarp  like  that  of  the  cocoanut  and  oil  palm  is 
lacking;  on  the  other  hand,  the  seed  (2-3  cm.  long  and  0.5  cm.  broad) 


DATE.  391 

consists  almost  entirely  of  hard  endosperm  resembling  that  of  the  ivory- 
nut.  On  the  dorsal  side  of  the  seed  midway  between  the  two  ends,  a 
rounded  cavity  contains  the  minute  germ,  while  a  groove  extends  the 
entire  length  of  the  ventral  side.  The  spermoderm  forms  a  thin  brownish 
coat  about  the  seed  or  stone. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp.  Lacking  fresh  or  alcoholic  specimens,  the  dried  dates  of 
commerce  may  be  soaked  in  water  and  finally  hardened  in  alcohol.  As 
noted  by  Braun,  cross  sections  show  five  layers. 

1.  The  Epidermal  Cells  are  of  isodiametric  form  (10-30  /*)  and  color- 
less. 

2.  The  Hypoderm  consists  of  two  or  more  layers  of  cells  (20-50  /*), 
with  yellow  or  brown  contents. 

3.  Stone  Cells,  mostly  radially  elongated,  form  a  layer  of  variable 
thickness. 

4.  The  Mesocarp  CeUs,  proceeding  from  without  inward,  pass  from 
tangentially  elongated  forms  first  into  isodiametric  and  finally  into  radi- 
ally elongated  forms. 

5.  An  Endocarp  of  colorless,  longitudinally  elongated,  collapsed   ele- 
ments forms  a  white  silky-fibrous  coat  readily  sep- 
arable from  the  stone. 

Spermoderm.     Stones  from  dried  dates  are  easily 
cut  with  a  strong  razor. 

1.  The  Epidermis   (Fig.   303)  is  a   single  layer 
of  narrow,  elongated  porous  sclerenchyma  elements, 
ranging  in  length  up  to  100  fj.   or  more.      On  the 
middle  of  the  dorsal  side  their  longer  diameters  run 
parallel  with  the  axis   of   the   stone,  but   in  other 
parts    they  are  often  transversely  or  diagonally  ar- 
ranged.     They  also   occur   side  by  side  in  groups,   , 

0  .  '    FIG.  303.    Date  (Phosmx 

recalling  the  endocarp  of  the  currant.  dactylifera}.      Epider- 

2.  The  Middle  Layer   (Fig.   304,  g).     All   the      fje^e%7sZt)™ 
cells  are  tangentially  elongated.     Directly  under  the      surface  view.     Xi6o. 

•J  •          i    •    i  11     j  i  1.  (MOELLER.) 

epidermis,  thick-walled  porous  elements  occur  here 
and  there,   but  in    the    remaining  two  or   more    layers    the    cells    are 
thin-walled,  with  side  walls  in  interrupted  contact,  resembling  the  tube 
cells  of  cereals.     These   tube  cells  are  often   20-30  JJL  wide  and  have 
brown  contents.      As  a  rule  the  outermost  cells  are  extended  in  the  same 


392 


FRUIT. 


direction  as  the  epidermal  cells;  those  in  the  inner  layer  however  are 
often  at  an  angle. 

3.  Inner  Layers.  One.  or  two  layers  adjoining  the  endosperm  are 
distinguished  from  the  remainder,  both  in  cross  section  and  surface 
view,  by  their  smaller  dimensions  and  darker  color. 

Endosperm  (Fig.  305).  The  reserve  material  of  the  stone  is  largely 
in  the  form  of  thickened  cell-wall,  the  structure  of  which  closely  resembles 
that  of  the  ivory-nut.  Although  varying  greatly  in  thickness,  the  double 
walls  are,  on  the  average,  15  /*  and  seldom  exceed  30  /JL.  Conspicuous 
pores,  broadest  towards  the  middle  lamella,  add  to  the  striking  appear- 
ance of  these  cells.  In  the  outer  layers  they  are  radially  elongated,  in 
the  heart,  isodiametric.  Oil  is  the  only  visible  cell-contents. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  Fruit  Flesh  enters  into  many  pastries,  sweetmeats,  and  candies. 

The  epidermis,  hypoderm,  and  stone  cells  are  readily  found,  but  are 
not  very  characteristic. 

Date  Stones  are  ground  as  a  substitute  or  adulterant  for  coffee.  Al- 
though both  seeds  have  reserve  material  largely  in  the  form  of  cellulose, 


FIG.  304.  Date  Stone.  Parenchyma 
of  spermoderm  and  g  tube  cells 
in  surface  view.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 


FIG.    305.      Date    Stone.      Endo- 
sperm with  thickened  cell  walls. 

XlOO.       (M6ELLER.) 


it  is  needless  to  say  that  date  stones  lack  the  valuable  constituents  of 
coffee. 

Sections  should  be  cut  for  the  identification  of  this  material.  The 
thick  walls  (Fig.  305)  with  distinct  pores  are  readily  distinguished  from 
the  knotty  thickened  walls  of  coffee.  The  double  walls  seldom  or  never 


DATE.     BANANA. 


393 


exceed  30  p  in  thickness,  whereas  in  the  ivory-nut  they  average  35  /*. 
Tissues  of  the  spermoderm  (Figs.  303  and  304)  are  radically  unlike  any 
in  coffee,  and  quite  different  from  those  of  the  ivory-nut. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:   Hanausek,  T.  F.   (10,   16);  Mace  (26); 
Moeller  (29);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);   Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (45). 
BRAUN  :  Ueber  das  Vorkommen  von  Spharokrystallen  aus  Traubenzucker  in  den  ver- 

schiedenen  Drogen.     Ztschr.  allg.  osterr.  Apoth.-Ver.  1878,  16,  337. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Ueber  die  Anatomic  der  Dattelkerne.     Chem.  Ztg.  1886,  10,  701. 
SACHS:  Zur  Keimungsgeschichte  der  Dattel.     Bot.  Zeit.  1862. 

ZABUCKIE:  Notes  on  the  Structure  of  the  Fruit  Stone  of  the  Date;  Phoenix  dactylijera 
L.     Jour.  N.  Y.  Micr.  Soc.  1892,  8,  107. 

BANANA. 

The  banana  tree  (Musa  sapientum  L.  order  Musacea)  is  a  native 
of  the  Old  World,  but  is  very  extensively  cultivated  in  tropical  America. 
It  is  said  to  produce  more  food  in  a  given  area  than  any  other  plant. 
Throughout  the  tropics  the  banana  is  a  staple  article  of  diet  in  many 
regions,  being  of  more  importance  than  all  other  foods  taken  together. 
It  is  eaten  either  raw  or  cooked.  Bunches  of  bananas  are  also  shipped 
green  in  enormous  quantities  to  Europe  and  the  United  States,  where 
they  are  ripened  in  well-ventilated  lofts. 

The  elongated  berry  is  either  red  or  yellow,  more  or  less  angular,  and 
varies  in  length  from  less  than  10  to  over  20  cm.  It  separates  readily  into 
a  tough  rind  and  a  pulpy  fruit  flesh  turning  brown  on  exposure,  the 
latter  showing  in  cross  section  three  indistinct  locules  with  minute  brown 
abortive  seeds.  The  plantain  (M.  sapientum  var.  paradisiaca  Hort.) 
has  a  larger  fruit,  which,  like  some  varieties  of  the  banana,  is  picked 
green  and  eaten  cooked. 

HISTOLOGY. 

A  green  banana  will  be  found  much  easier  to  section  than  one  fully 
ripe.  Transverse,  longitudinal,  and  tangential  sections  should  be  pre- 
pared, also  mounts  of  the  isolated  fibers  and  abortive  seeds. 

Pericarp.  The  rind,  or  so-called  peel,  containing  most  of  the  bundles, 
is  easily  stripped  from  the  fruit  pulp,  the  separation  being  through  the 
delicate  tissues  of  the  outer  mesocarp. 

i.  The  Epicarp  Cells  are  small,  polygonal,  and  thick- walled.  Tan- 
gential sections  show  an  indistinctly  striated  cuticle. 


394  FRUIT. 

2.  Hypoderm.     The  remaining  layers  of  the  peel  may  be  arbitrarily 
designated  either  hypoderm  or  outer  mesocarp.     The  cells  of  the  outer 
layers  of  ground  tissue   are  small,  rather  thick-walled,  and  closely  ar- 
ranged; but  proceeding  inward,  the  cells  increase  in  size,  the  walls  de- 
crease in  thickness,  and  the  arrangement  becomes  more  loose  and  spongy. 
The  numerous  bundles  running  through  this  ground  tissue  consist  in 
the  outer  layers  entirely  of  bast  fibers,  in  the  inner  layers  of    the  usual 
nbro-vascular  elements.     Especially  noticeable  are  the  extraordinary  size 
of  the  spiral  vessels  (often  50  /*  in  diameter)  and  their  loosely  wound 
spirals.     Accompanying   each  bundle  are    one  or  more  chains  of  very 
conspicuous    brown- walled,  rounded,    giant    cells    about    250  /JL    broad, 
resembling  the  oil-ducts  of  umbelliferous  seeds. 

3.  Mesocarp.     The  fruit  flesh  is  a  mass  of  rounded  pulp  cells  which, 
in  the  outer  layers,  are  nearly  isodiametric,  but  in  the  inner  layers  are 
radially  greatly   elongated  and  readily  separate   as  chains.     Fibro-vas- 
cular  bundles  like  those  already  described  occur  sparingly  in  the  outer 
and  also  in  the  inner  layers.     The  curiously  shaped  starch  grains  (Fig. 
306)    are   much  elongated,  mostly  20-40  /*,  occasionally  75  /*  long,  and 


FIG.  306.     Banana    Starch.     X^oo.     (MOELLER.) 

have  an  excentric  hilum,  mostly  in  the  broader  end,  and  very  distinct  rings. 
Among  the  grains  are  fusiform,  cigar-shaped,  ovoid,  rod  shaped,  and 
other  striking  forms.  Tschirch  and  Oesterle  lay  particular  stress  on  the 
"sickle-shaped"  forms,  consisting  of  two  curved  grains  united  end  to 
end.  The  fleshy  partitions  contain  numerous  bundles  accompanied  by 
chains  of  brown  giant  cells  like  those  in  the  hypoderm.  E.  Munroe 
Bailey  has  shown  that  the  starch  largely  disappears  during  ripening 

4.  Endocarp.  The  inner  layer  of  the  pericarp  is  made  up  of  thin- 
walled  cells  mostly  radially  elongated. 

The  Seeds  are  abortive,  of  a  brown  color,  and  lack  distinctive  elements. 


BANANA.     PINEAPPLE.  395 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Banana  Flour.  The  ground  dried  pulp  of  the  green  fruit  consists 
largely  of  starch  and  cellular  debris.  Not  only  the  starch  grains  (Fig.  306), 
but  also  the  broad,  loosely  wound  spiral  vessels  and  the  chains  of  giant 
cells  are  characteristic. 

Guiana  Arrowroot  or  Banana  Starch  is  a  commercial  product  of  some 
importance.  The  starch  grains  are  elongated,  curiously  shaped,  and 
have  distinct  rings.  The  hilum  is  usually  in  the  broader  end,  whereas 
in  the  somewhat  similar  grains  of  curcuma  and  yam  the  hilum  is  in  the 
narrow  end. 

PINEAPPLE. 

The  pineapple,  one  of  the  most  delicious  of  tropical  fruits,  is  the 
product  of  a  herbaceous,  endogenous  plant  (Ananassa  saliva  Schult.  f., 
order  Bromeliacea),  a  native  of  the  West  Indies  and  other  regions  of 
the  New  World.  Like  oranges  and  bananas,  pineapples  are  now  shipped 
to  cooler  regions  in  large  quantities,  but  in  Europe  have  not  entirely 
supplanted  the  greenhouse  product,  which  is  said  to  have  a  finer  flavor. 

The  fruit  consists  of  numerous  fleshy  berries,  each  with  a  single  fleshy 
bract,  united  with  an  axis,  forming  a  conical  composite  fruit  shaped 
like  a  pine  cone,  hence  the  name  pineapple.  Surmounting  the  fruit  is 
a  tuft  of  sword-shaped  saw-toothed  leaves.  The  tapering,  more  or  less 
appressed  extremities  of  the  bracts  are  toothed.  The  chartaceous,  per- 
sistent perianth  lobes  form  a  close,  dome-like  structure  covering  a  cavity 
in  which  are  the  remains  of  the  styles  and  stamens. 

R.  H.  Chittenden  has  found  that  the  pineapple  contains  an  enzyme, 
"bromelin,"  possessing  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  power  of  digesting 
proteid  substances. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  edible  part  of  the  pineapple  is  the  fruit  flesh  freed  from  the  harsh 
outer  envelope  and  also  from  the  fibrous  core.  As,  however,  the  removal 
of  these  parts  is  not  always  complete,  a  knowledge  of  their  histology  is 
desirable. 

The  Bracts  consist  of  hard  outer  and  inner  layers,  with  softer  tissues 
between. 

i.  The  Outer  Epidermal  Cells  are  small  with  wavy  outline.  The 
secondary  walls  are  greatly  thickened  except  for  a  spherical  cavity 


396 


FRUIT. 


scarcely  one-third  the  diameter  of  the  cell,  which  is  entirely  filled  by  a 
silicious  body. 

2.  Outer  Hypoderm.     One  or  more  layers  of  very  thick,  sclerenchy- 
matized,  porous- walled  cells  underlie  the  epidermis.     Cross  sections  show 
that  these  cells  are  thicker  than  broad,  and  tangential  sections,  that  they 
are  somewhat  elongated. 

3.  Mesophyl.    The  hypodermal  cells  pass  into  a  thin- walled  but  por- 
ous mesophyl,  which,  in  the  fleshy  portions,  is  the  same  as  the  fruit  flesh. 

4.  Inner  Hypoderm.     Beneath  the  inner  epidermis  is  a  second  layer 
of  sclerenchyma  elements. 

5.  Inner  Epidermis.    This  characteristic  layer  is  composed  of  thin- 
walled,  nearly  square  cells  with  sharply  zigzag  outline.     They  resemble 

somewhat  the  outer  epidermal  cells,  but  lack  the 
silicious  contents. 

Pericarp.  No  sharp  distinction  can  be 
drawn  between  pericarp,  perianth  tube,  and 
fleshy  portion  of  bract,  as  they  all  unite  to  form 
the  fruit  flesh. 

1.  An  Epicarp  is  present  only  in  the  disc  sur- 
rounding the  style.     The    cells    are    much  like 
those  of  the  hypoderm  of  the  bracts,  but   are 
more  distinctly  porous  and  consequently  in  tan- 
gential section  appear  beautifully  beaded. 

2.  Mesocarp.     The  cells  of  the  fruit  flesh  are 
mostly  isodiametric,  and  although   thin-walled, 
are  often  distinctly  porous.     Beautiful  raphides 
(Fig.  307),  often  over  100 •  p  long,  occur  in  large 
numbers   both    singly    and    in    bundles.     The 
nbro-vascular  bundles  consist  in    large   part  of 

FIG.  307.     Pineapple    (Ana-  bast  fibers  wjth  broad  lumcjn  and  round  pores, 

nassa    saliva).      Cross    sec- 
tion of  fruit  flesh  showing  and  broad  spiral  vessels  often  25  ft  in  diameter. 

raphides.    Xi6c.  (WlNTONj  -r>    j  m\       •  11 

3.  Endocarp.     The  inner  two  or  three  layers 

are  of  tangentially  elongated  cells,  those  in  the  innermost  layer,  or  endo- 
carp  proper,  being  very  narrow,  usually  only  10-20  p  broad.    The  walls 
are  thin  throughout. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

In  preserves  the  chief  elements  are  the  cells  of  the  parenchymatous 
fruit  flesh,  containing  large  raphides  (Fig.  307),  and  the  fibro-vascular 


PINEAPPLE.  397 

bundles,  consisting  chiefly  of  bast  fibers  with  broad  lumen  and  round  pores, 
also  large  spiral  vessels.  Occasionally  one  finds  fragments  of  the  bracts  and 
other  outer  parts,  of  which  the  characteristic  elements  are:  first,  the  small, 
square  epidermal  cells  with  zigzag  walls  and,  in  the  case  of  the  outer 
epidermis,  with  silicious  contents;  and  second,  the  thick- walled,  some- 
what elongated,  sclerenchyma  elements. 


PART  VII. 

VEGETABLES. 


VEGETABLES. 

A  number  of  the  common  vegetables  are  seeds  and  fruits  picked  while 
immature.  The  mature  forms  of  some  of  these  are  described  with  the 
legumes  (peas,  bean,  Lima  bean),  cereals  (green  corn),  and  spices 
(peppers)  but  identification  of  the  vegetables  by  these  descriptions  is 
often  difficult  owing  to  the  undeveloped  condition  of  the  tissues  and 
starch  grains. 

The  vegetables  here  described  include  most  of  the  fruits  used 
minced  or  pulped  in  commercial  products,  such  as  pickles  and  catsups; 
the  common  roots  and  tubers  used  for  culinary  purposes,  cattle  feeding, 
starch  manufacture  and  adulterating  food  products;  and  certain  edible 
fungi. 

CUCURBIT    FRUITS    (Cucurbitacea)> 

The  fleshy  mesocarp  of  these  fruits  contains  curious  branching  latex 
tubes.  Thin-walled  stomata  occur  in  great  numbers  on  the  epicarp. 
The  numerous  flattened  seeds  are  borne  within  the  three  large  locules 
on  three  double-central  placentae,  but  as  these  placentae  extend  to  the 
outer  wall  before  branching,  thus  forming  false  partitions,  the  seeds 
appear  to  be  borne  on  parietal  placentae. 

Several  characteristic  tissues  are  found  in  the  seed,  of  which  the  thin- 
walled,  ribbed  palisade  cells  of  the  epidermis  (Figs.  309  and  310,  ep)  and 
the  sclerenchyma  cells  of  the  third  layer  (scl)  are  much  alike  in  all  the 
important  economic  species. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Bohmer  (6);  Collin  (8);  Hanausek,  T.  F. 
(17);  Harz  (18);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42). 
BRAEMER:    De  la  localisation  des  principes  actifs  des  Cucurbitacees.     Compt.  rend. 

1893,  117,  753. 
CARLES:   Nouveau  cas  de  fraude  de  conserves  alimentaires.    Journ.  pharm.  chim.  1885, 

11,  547- 

1  The  descriptions  of  cucurbit  fruits  are  by  Miss  KATE  G.  BARBER. 

401 


402  VEGETABLES. 

FICKEL:  Anatomic  u.  Entwickelungsgesch.  der  Samenschalen  einiger  Cucurbitaceen. 
Bot.  Ztg.  1876,  34,  737. 

FISCHER:   Ueber  das  Siebrohren  System  der  Cucurbitaceen.     Leipzig,  1884. 

GODFRIN:  Etude  histologique  sur  les  tegument  seminaux  des  Angiospermes.  Soc. 
d.  Sci.  d.  Nancy,  1880,  109. 

HARTWICH:  Semen  Cucurbitae.    Arch,  pharm.  1885. 

v.  HOHNEL:  Morpholog.  Untersuchungungen  iiber  die  Samenschale  der  Cucurbi- 
taceen. Sitzungsber.  Wiener  Akad.  1876,  73. 

KOSUTANY:  Die  Kurbiskernkuchen.    Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1893,  43,  264. 

PUMPKIN. 

Wittmack,  in  his  investigation  of  prehistoric  remains  in  Peru,  has 
secured  evidence  that  the  pumpkin  (Cucurbita  Pepo  L.)  is  an  American 
plant  and  not,  as  formerly  believed,  a  native  of  the  Old  World.  This 
belief  is  further  substantiated  by  the  statements  of  early  explorers  that 
the  pumpkin  was  grown  in  maize  fields  by  the  aborigines  just  as  is 
practiced  to-day  by  American  farmers. 

The  pumpkin  is  the  largest  of  all  cultivated  fruits,  in  extreme  cases 
reaching  the  prodigious  weight  of  nearly  100  kilos.  It  is  apple-shaped, 


FIG.  308.     Pumpkin   (Cucurbita  Pepo}.     Epicarp  in    surface   view.     X3°°-     (BARBER.) 

smooth,  and  of  an  orange  or  green-orange  color.  The  fleshy  rind,  con- 
sisting of  receptacle  and  pericarp,  is  several  centimeters  thick,  and  is 
highly  esteemed  in  America  for  rising  pies  as  well  as  for  feeding.  About 
the  seeds  is  a  tangle  of  gelatinous,  mesocarp  fibers,  such  as  occur  in 
the  melon  and  some  other  cucurbitaceous  plants.  Pumpkin  seeds  are 
1.5-2.5  cm.  long,  elliptical,  strongly  flattened,  and  have  a  narrow 
border  on  both  sides.  The  embryo  consists  of  two  flattened  cotyle- 
dons and  a  minute  radicle. 


PUMPKIN. 


403 


HISTOLOGY. 


Receptacle  and  Pericarp,     i.  The  Epicarp  Cells  (Fig.  308)  are  pris- 
matic, forming  a  palisade  layer  upward  of  50  /*  thick.     In  surface  view 


ep 


N 


al-- 


FlG.  309.  Pumpkin.  Seed  in  cross  section.  S  spermoderm  consists  of  ep  ribbed  palisade 
cells  of  epidermis  containing  am  starch  grains,  hy  pitted  subepidermal  cells,  sd  scleren- 
chyma  layer,  m1  pitted  mesocarp  cells,  m2  reticulated  spongy  parenchyma,  p1  parenchyma, 
p2  spongy  parenchyma,  and  p3  inner  epidermis;  TV  perisperm;  £  endosperm  consisting 
of  aleurone  cells;  C  cotyledon  containing  al  aleurone  grains.  Xi6o.  (BARBER.) 

they  are  for  the  most  part  polygonal  and  do  not  exceed  25  /*  in  diameter, 
but  about  the  stomata  they  are  somewhat  elongated  and  curved.  Their 
walls  are  bright  yellow,  whereas  those  of  the  stomata  are  colorless. 


404 


VEGETABLES. 


2.  Hypoderm.     Exceedingly   small  cells  in  several  layers  form  the 
hypoderm. 

3.  Mesocarp.    The  noteworthy  elements  of  the  fruit  flesh   are  the 
strongly  developed  spiral  vessels  of  the  nbro-vascular  bundles,  often  60  fi 
broad,  some  with  single  strands  and  turns  wide  apart,  others  with  2-4 
strands  and  turns  close  together;  also,  accompanying  the  bundles,  branch- 
ing and  anastomosing  latex  tubes.     The  ground  tissue  is  of  large,  thin- 
walled,  rounded  elements. 

4.  Endocarp.     This  is  evident  on  the  seeds  as  a  thin  membrane. 
Spennoderm  (Figs.  309  and  310).     Either  fresh  or  dried  seeds  may 


FIG.  310.  Pumpkin.  Seed  elements  in  surface  view,  ep  ribbed  palisade  cells  of  epider- 
mis; epl  branching  rib  from  epidermal  cell;  hy  pitted  subepidermal  cells;  scl  scleren- 
chyma  layer;  ml  pitted  mesocarp  cells;  m2  reticulated  spongy  parenchyma;  pl  paren- 
chyma; p2  spongy  parenchyma;  p3  inner  epidermis  of  spermoderm;  N  perisperm; 
E  endosperm.  Xi6o.  (BARBER.) 

be  used  for  making  preparations,  which  should  include  transverse  and 
tangential  sections. 

1.  The  Palisade  Epidermis  (ep)  is  remarkable  not  only  for  the  great 
height  of  the  cells  (often  over  200  /*),  but  also  for  the  longitudinal  ribs 
with  branches  at  the  outer  ends  which  strengthen  the  'radial  walls.     In 
cross  section  these  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  the  walls  themselves, 
but  in  tangential  section  they  are  seen  to  be  circular  rods  on  a  thin  cell- 
wall.     These  cells  contain  small  starch  grains   (am). 

2.  Pitted  Subepidermal  Cells  (hy).    .The  small  polygonal  cells  with 
numerous  minute  pores  are  arranged  in  3-6  cell-layers. 


PUMPKIN.  405 

3.  Sclerenchyma   (scl).     Cross  sections   of  the  cells  are  often  oval, 
showing  thick  walls  pierced  by  numerous  pores.     In  surface  view  the 
cells  are  elongated  with  wavy  outline,  and  are  arranged  end  to  end  in 
rows. 

4.  Pitted  Mesocarp  Cells  (m1).     These  resemble  the  cells  of  the  sub- 
epidermal  coat,  but  form  only  one  distinct  layer. 

5.  Reticulated  Spongy  Parenchyma  (m2).   One  or  more  layers  of  curi- 
ously  reticulated  cells  with   large    intercellular    spaces    form   the  most 
remarkable  tissue  of  the  seed.     Their  appearance  is  alike  striking  in 
cross  section  and  surface  view  and  reminds  one  of  a  prickly  pear  cactus. 

6.  Parenchyma  (pl).    The  cells  are  large,  of  the  usual  type. 

7.  Spongy  Parenchyma  (p2).     The  parenchyma  passes  by  degrees 
into  a  remarkable  spongy  tissue  with    a  large  ring  evident,  in  surface 
view,  in  the  center  of  nearly  every  cell. 

8.  The  Inner  Epidermis  (/^).     The  cells  resemble  those  of  the  pro- 
ceeding layer  but  are  smaller.     The  protuberance  in  the  center  of  each 
cell  forming  the  ring  seen  in  surface  view  is  evident  in  cross  section. 

Perisperm  (N).  This  consists  of  a  few  layers  of  thin-walled  cells 
more  or  less  compressed. 

Endosperm  (E).  A  single  layer  of  well-defined  aleurone  cells  forms 
the  endosperm. 

Embryo  (C).  In  sections  examined  in  turpentine,  we  find  numerous 
small  aleurone  grains  3-6  JJL  in  diameter. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Pumpkin  Pulp  is  not  only  used  for  making  pies,  but  also  for  adulterat- 
ing tomato  catsup,  jams,  and  other  fruit  products. 

The  microscopic  elements  of  the  pulp  of  chief  value  in  diagnosis, 
including  the  broad  vessels,  the  latex  tubes,  and  the  epicarp  (Fig. 
308)  with  stomata,  are  largely  although  usually  not  entirely  removed  by 
straining. 

Pumpkin-seed  Cake  is  obtained  in  limited  amount  as  a  by-product 
in  the  manufacture  of  pumpkin-seed  oil.  The  characteristic  tissues  of 
the  spermoderm  (Fig.  310)  include  the  ribbed  palisade  epidermis  (ep), 
the  pitted  parenchyma  of  the  second  layer  (hy),  the  sclerenchyma  cells 
with  wavy  outline  (scl),  and  the  reticulated  spongy  parenchyma  (m2). 


406  VEGETABLES. 


5QUASH. 

The  fruit  of  numerous  varieties  of  the  winter  squash  (Cucurbita  maxima 
Duch.)  is  put  to  the  same  uses  as  the  pumpkin. 

Squashes  of  the  different  varieties  are  widely  different  in  macroscopic 
characters,  and  according  to  Harz  are  somewhat  different  in  histplogical 
structure.  In  the  main,  however,  their  structure  corresponds  closely  with 
that  of  the  pumpkin. 

CUCUMBER. 

The  cucumber  or  gherkin  (Cucumis  sativus  L.)  is  a  native  of  the 
East  Indies,  whence  in  ancient  times  its  culture  spread  over  various 
parts  of  Asia  and  Europe. 

The  succulent  fruit  picked  green  is  prized  not  only  as  a  fresh  vege- 
table eaten  either  raw  or  cooked,  but  also  for  pickling. 

Although  variable  in  shape,  it  is  usually  elongated,  in  section  rounded 
triangular,  and  has  numerous  warts  on  the  surface,  each  capped  by  a 
short,  blunt  spine,  which  readily  becomes  detached  on  handling.  The 
fleshy  pericarp  is  green  in  the  outer  layers,  but  white  further  inward. 
Numerous  flattened  seeds  are  embedded  in  a  gelatinous  substance  within 
the  three  locules.  The  cream-colored  seeds  are  seldom  over  2  mm.  thick 
even  when  fully  ripe,  and  are  not,  as  in  the  case  of  the  pumpkin  seed, 
provided  with  a  distinct  border. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Cucumbers  are  often  picked  for  pickling  at  such  an  early  stage  in 
their  development  that  they  do  not  show  very  marked  differentiation 
of  the  tissues.  When,  however,  they  reach  a  diameter  of  3  cm.  or  more, 
the  structure  both  of  the  pericarp  and  seed  is  sufficiently  characteristic 
to  permit  their  identification  with  some  degree  of  certainty. 

Pericarp.    The  following  description  applies  to  the  half -grown  fruit: 

1.  The  Epicarp   Cells   are  prismatic   with   thin  walls.     They  reach 
the  height  of  75  /*  or  more  and  vary  from  7-20  \i  in  breadth.    They  do 
not  contain  chlorophyl  grains. 

2.  Hypoderm.     Several  layers   of  small,   rounded,   loosely   arranged 
cells  containing  numerous  chlorophyl  grains  form  the  subepidermal  tis- 
sues, to  which  the  fruit  owes  its  green  color. 

3.  The  Mesocarp,  or  more  correctly  the  fruit  flesh,  is  a  colorless  mass 
of  loose  parenchyma,  through  which  run  the  fibro- vascular  bundles. 


CUCUMBER.     MUSKMELON.  4°7 

The  Spermoderm  is  best  studied  in  seeds  taken  directly  from  a  ripe 
cucumber,  as  those  obtained  from  a  seedsman  often  lack  the  outer 
epidermis. 

1.  The  Palisade  Epidermis  is  thickened  by  rods,  which  differ    from 
those  of  the  pumpkin  in  that  they  are  sclerenchymatized  and  do  not 
branch   at   the   end. 

2.  Pitted  Cells.    These  cells  have  thick  porous  walls  and  are  arranged 
end  to  end  in  rows  forming  a  single  cell-layer.     Numerous  small  inter- 
cellular spaces  are  evident  in  surface  view. 

3.  The  Sclerenchyma  is  practically  the  same  as  in  the  pumpkin.     In 
surface  view  this  layer  is  very  striking  even  in  green  cucumbers,  owing 
to  the  wavy,  sclerenchymatized  cell-walls.     Tt  reminds  us  of  the  epidermis 
of  oat  chaff,  but  of  course  only  elongated  cells  are  present. 

Spongy  Parenchyma.  This  layer  is  made  up  of  star-shaped  cells 
with  thin  walls. 

The  Perisperm,  Endosperm,  and  Embryo  lack  distinctive  features. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Not  only  whole  cucumbers  but  quite  small  pieces  are  recognized  by 
the  warts  on  the  surface,  the  thin  elliptical  seeds,  and  other  macroscopic 
characters. 

The  microscopic  elements  of  value  in  diagnosis  are  the  palisade 
epidermal  layers  of  both  the  fruit  and  the  seed,  and  the  Sclerenchyma 
layer  of  the  seed. 

MUSKMELON. 

The  muskmelon  (Cucumis  Melo  L.)  is  a  native  of  southern  Asia  and 
tropical  Africa. 

The  hollow  fruit  is  spherical  or  slightly  elongated  with  8-12  narrow 
longitudinal  grooves.  The  surface  is  yellow-green  with  brown  reticula- 
tions. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp  (Fig.  311).  i.  Epicarp.  The  cells  are  prismatic,  very  thick- 
walled  with  a  thick  cuticle.  The  reticulations  are  of  cork  tissues  which 
break  through  the  epicarp  similar  to  lenticels.  In  the  grooves  the  epi- 
dermal cells  have  thinner  walls  and  are  accompanied  by  stomata  and 
multicellular  hairs. 

2.  Hypoderm.    Moderately  thick- walled  pitted  cells  form  this  layer. 

3.  Mesocarp.     Bundles  and  latex  tubes  are  scattered  through  a  mass 
of  loose  parenchyma. 


408  VEGETABLES. 

Spermoderm.     i.  The  Palisade  Epidermis  is  strengthened  by  rods 
without  evident  branches. 

2.  Pitted  Cells  with  thickened  walls  form  several  layers. 

3.  Sclerenchyma.    The  cells  are  large  with  thick  sinuous  walls,  and 
resemble  those  of  the  cucumber. 

4.  Spongy    Parenchyma.    This    consists    of    4-5    layers    of    slightly 


FlG.  311.     Muskmelon  (Cucumis  Melo).     Cross  section  of  rind.     (MOELLER.) 

thickened  porous  cells  intermediate  in    characters    between  the   corre- 
sponding cells  of  the  pumpkin  and  the  cucumber. 

Perisperm,  Endosperm,  and  Embryo  are  like  those  of  the  cucumber. 


WATERflELON. 

The  watermelon  (Citndlus  vulgaris  Schrad.)  comes  to  us  from  Africa, 
where  it  is  eaten  by  the  natives  and  the  larger  animals. 

The  large  fruit  is  ellipsoidal  with  a  dark-green  surface,  often  mottled 
with  light  green.  The  rind  or  outer  portion  of  the  fruit  flesh  is  white 


WATERMELON.  409 

or  light  green,  of  firm  texture;  the  inner  portion  is  red,  pink  or  yellow 
of  looser  texture,  with  numerous  bundle  fibers.  Embedded  in  the  inner 
pericarp  are  the  black  or  light-brown,  flat,  lustrous  seeds. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp,     i.  The  Epicarp  consists  of  prismatic  cells  with  thickened 
outer  and  radial  walls. 

2.  Hypoderm.     This  is  made  up  of  10-12  layers  of  indistinctly  pitted 
cells. 

3.  Stone  Cells  in  one  or  more  layers  form  a  distinct  zone  in  the  mature 


''  :  :; 


>>^^£r^«W^1 


FIG.  312. ^  Watermelon  (Citrullus  vulgaris).  Cross  section  of  outer  layer  of  spermoderm 
showing  the  palisade  epidermis,  the  sclerenchyma  cells  and  the  porous  spongy  paren- 
chyma. (MOELLER.) 

fruit.     During  the  earlier  stages  of  development  these  stone  cells  occur 
in  groups,  but  later  the  groups  become  almost  continuous. 

4.  Mesocarp.     This  tissue  consists  of  parenchyma  cells  with  moder- 


VEGETABLES. 

ately  thick,  porous  walls  and  intercellular  spaces;  among  which  ramify 
bundles  and  latex  tubes. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  312).  The  structure  is  much  the  same  as  in  the 
cucumber,  except  that  the  rods  of  the  palisade  epidermis  are  smaller 
and  more  numerous,  and  the  subepidermal  stone  cells  form  several  layers 
with  scarcely  any  intercellular  spaces. 

Perisperm,  Endosperm,  and  Embryo  are  similar  to  the  corresponding 
layers  of  the  cucumber  and  the  muskmelon. 


SOLANACEOUS    FRUITS    (Solanacece). 

This  family  yields  a  number  of  important  products,  of  which  the 
potato  (p.  414)  is  a  tuber,  the  eggplant  and  tomato  are  fleshy  fruits,  and  the 
garden  peppers  are  dry  fruits.  Cayenne  pepper  and  paprika,  the  latter 
being  but  a  variety  of  our  garden  peppers,  are  described  under  spices 
(p.  515).  The  structure  of  the  tomato  is  of  special  interest  because  of 
the  adulteration  of  tomato  products. 

TOnATO. 

There  is  good  evidence  that  the  tomato  (Solanum  Lycopersicum  L., 
Lycopersicum  esculentum  Mill.)  was  cultivated  in  Peru  long  before  the 
discovery  of  America..  A  plant  believed  to  be  the  original  form  of  the 
species  grows  wild  in  Peru,  also  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  Mexico  and  Cali- 
fornia. Numerous  varieties  are  now  grown  as  garden  vegetables  through- 
out the  civilized  world,  except  in  the  coldest  regions. 

The  fleshy  fruit  varies  in  the  different  varieties  from  the  size  of  a 
currant  to  the  size  of  a  cocoanut.  Its  color  is  red,  pink,  or  yellow,  accord- 
ing to  the  color  of  the  fruit  flesh;  the  smooth,  lustrous  skin,  however,  is 
bright  yellow  in  all  the  varieties.  Normally  the  fruit  is  bilocular,  but 
as  a  result  of  cultivation  is  multilocular.  Numerous  seeds  (Fig.  313)  3-4 
mm.  long,  inclosed  in  a  gelatinous  mantle,  partly  fill  the  locules.  Freed 
from  this  substance  they  are  dull  yellow,  ovoid,  flattened,  3-4  mm.  long^ 
and  thickly  beset  with  short,  silky  hairs.  The  spirally  coiled  embryo 
with  elongated  radicle  and  cotyledons,  each  about  3  mm.  long,  is  em- 
bedded in  the  endosperm. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  ripe  fruit  should  be  hardened  in  alcohol  before  cutting  sections. 
The  skin  is  separated  by  plunging  the  fruit  for  a  moment  in  boiling 


TOM 'A 'TO. 


water.  Soaking  the  seeds  in  a  very  dilute  alkali  facilitates  the  removal 
of  the  gelatinous  material,  after  which  they  may  be  held  between  pieces 
of  pith  and  sectioned. 

Pericarp.  The  skin  which  separates  from  the  fruit 
flesh  consists  of  epidermis  and  hypoderm,  the  walls 
of  both  being  characterized  by  their  golden  yellow 
color. 

1.  Epicarp  (Fig.  314,  epi).     The  cells,  as  seen  in 
surface    view,    are   polygonal,    16-35  /*    m    diameter. 
Their  yellow  radial  walls  are  thick,  6-8  /*,  and  dis- 
tinctly beaded.     At  the  corners  they  are  often  collenchy- 
matously  thickened. 

2.  The   Hypoderm    (Fig.    314,  hy)   consists    of   a 

single  layer  of  cells  larger  than  those  of  the  epicarp,  FlG     3I3       Tomato 

but  like  the  latter  with  thick,  yellow,  porous  walls.         (Solanum  Lycopersi- 

cum).    Seed  in  cross 

3.  Mesocarp.    The  rounded  pulp  cells  of  the  ground      section.        (MOEL- 
tissue  have  no    distinctive  characters.      The  vascular      LER'' 
elements  of  most  of  the  bundles  are  spiral  vessels,  seldom  over  20  /*  in 
diameter,  but  those  in  the   strongly  developed    bundles    near  the    stem 


FIG.  314.     Tomato,     epi  epicarp  and  hy  hypoderm  of  pericarp  (skin),   Xsoo;    ep  outer 
epidermis  of  spermoderm  with  t  hairs,  from  below.    Xi6o.     (WiNTON.) 

are  partly  pitted  vessels.  Bast  fibers  accompany  these  latter  bundles 
but  are  lacking  elsewhere. 

4.  Endocarp.  This  layer  is  of  thin-walled,  polygonal  elements  hardly 
distinguishable  from  the  pulp  cells. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  314;  Fig.  315,  S).  i.  The  Outer  Epidermis  (ep) 
is  highly  characteristic  owing  to  numerous  peculiar  hairs  (/),  varying  up 
to  over  500  fj.  in  length.  These  hairs  are  broadly  conical  at  the  base, 
but  taper  gradually  from  this  to  the  apex.  The  lumen  in  the  basal 


4I2 


VEGETABLES. 


portion  is  triangular,  in  the  remainder  of  the  hair  very  narrow  or  not 
evident  at  all.  They  remind  one  of  funnels  with  long  stems. 

2.  The  Middle  Layers  consist  of  several  layers  of  small,  brown,  oblit- 
erated cells,  which  in  the  ripe  seed  do  not 
assume  their  original  form  even  after  treatment 
with  reagents. 

The  Perisperm  (Fig.  315,  TV),  after  treat- 
ment of  cross  sections  with  Javelle  water,  is 
seen  to  consist  of  a  distinct  layer  of  thin-walled 
cells. 

Endosperm  (Fig.  315,  E).  The  cells  have 
rather  thick,  rigid  walls.  They  contain  minute, 
rounded  aleurone  grains  seldom  over  6  jn  in 
diameter,  and  fat. 

The  Embryo  consists  of  typical  embryonic 
tissues  with  contents  the  same  as  those  of  the 
endosperm. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole  Tomato  Products.     Under  this  head 
are    included    canned    tomatoes,  tomato   pre- 
serves, and  other    preparations   of    the  whole 
Ra    fruit,  from  which  the  skin  has  been  removed 
by  scalding.     The  chief  microscopic  elements 
FIG.   315.     Tomato.     Seed  in  are  rounded  pulp  cells,  vascular  elements  (chiefly 
cSH-e^StiS;  small  spiral  vessels)  _  and  seeds  thickly  beset 
also  layers  of  compressed  cells;  wjt^  characteristic  nail-shaped  hairs  (Figs.  314 

N   perisperm;    E  endosperm  .      .  .  .  . 

and  Ra  radicle,  both  contain-  and   315,    t).      Fragments   of    the    skin    with 

S°lden  yellow  porous  cells  °f  the  ePicarP  (FiS- 
314,  epi)   and  hypoderm  (hy)  are  frequently 

present  in  small  amount  as  an  accidental  impurity,  even  in  products 
made  from  the  pared  fruit.  The  adulterants  are  dyes,  preservatives, 
foreign  pulp  and,  in  the  case  of  preserves,  agar-agar,  starch-paste,  and 
other  gelatinous  materials. 

Tomato  Catsup,  or  Ketchup,  a  popular  sauce  in  the  United  States,  is 
manufactured  in  enormous  quantities,  and  sold  in  bottles.  Properly 
made  it  consists  of  a  mixture  of  tomato  pulp,  freed  from  seeds,  with 
vinegar  and  spices;  but  most  of  the  catsup  on  the  market  is  colored 
with  ponceau,  eosin,  or  other  coal-tar  dyes,  and  preserved  with  sodium 


TOMATO.  413 

benzoate  or  salicylic  acid.  Adulteration  with  pumpkin  pulp  and  pos- 
sibly with  the  pulp  of  the  carrot,  turnip,  and  sugar  beet  is  also  practiced. 
The  coal-tar  dyes  usually  employed  in  tomato  products  do  not  remain 
in  solution,  but  are  taken  up  by  the  protoplasmic  contents  of  the  cells, 
which  ordinarily  have  little  or  no  color.  Their  detection  is  best  effected 
by  Arata's  wool  test l  and  other  chemical  methods.  Preliminary  to  the 
usual  chemical  tests  for  salicilic  and  benzoic  acids,  Lagerheim's  sublimi- 
nation  test  (p.  321)  should  be  employed. 

For  the  detection  of  foreign  pulps  it  is  advisable  to  examine  the  coarser 
material,  consisting  of  seeds,  fragments  of  skin,  and  vascular  elements, 
obtained  by  washing  on  a  sieve  with  i  mm.  mesh  in  a  stream  of  water. 
The  vessels  of  the  pumpkin  are  larger  than  those  of  the  tomato;  the 
epicarp  cells  (Fig.  308)  are  smaller,  non-porous  and  are  interspersed  with 
stomata.  Still  more  characteristic  are  the  branched  and  jointed  latex 
cells  of  the  mesocarp.  The  carrot  (Fig.  322)  is  characterized:  (i)  by  the 
elongated  epidermal  cells;  (2)  by  the  polygonal  cells  of  the  cortical  paren- 
chyma containing  chromoplasts;  and  (3)  by  the  elements  of  the  bundles, 
of  which  the  rather  large  vessels  (often  50  p  broad)  with  closely  crowded 
reticulations,  are  quite  different  from  the  vessels  of  the  tomato.  The 
vessels  of  the  beet  (Fig.  321)  are  mostly  50  /*  broad  (sometimes  50-100  ,«), 
with  very  large  and  open  reticulations.  A  noteworthy  peculiarity  of  the 
reticulated  vessels  of  the  turnip  (Fig.  323),  are  their  short  joints,  often 
broader  than  long.  The  meshes  are  smaller  .than  those  of  beet  vessels. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:   Mace  (26);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42). 
BRIOSI  e  GIGLI:    Intorno  alia  struttura  anatomica  ed  alia  composizione  chimica  del 

frutto  del  Pomodoro  (Ly coper sicum  esculentum  Mill.).      Rendic.  delle  sess.  della 

R.  Acad.  delle  scienze  delFIst.  di  Bologna.  1889,  59. 
CARLES:  Nouveau  cas  de  fraude  de  conserves  ali  mental  res.      Journ.  pharm.  chim. 

1885,  11,  547. 
HOCKAUF:    Ueber    bisher    wenig    beriicksichtige    Merkmale    der    Solanaceen-Samen. 

Ph.  Centralh.  1905. 
MARPMANN:    Beitrage  zur   mikroskopischen   Untersuchung   der   Fruchtmarmeladen 

Ztschr.  angew.  Mikrv  1896,  2,  97. 

1  Ztschr.  anal.  chem.  1889,  28,  639;  Jour.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.  1900,  22,  582. 


414 


VEGETABLES. 


TUBERS   AND   ROOTS.* 

Of  the  vegetables  produced  underground  some  are  tubers  (potato, 
artichoke),  others,  true  roots  (beet,  carrot,  turnip,  sweet  potato),  and 
others  still,  bulbs  (onion).  Those  here  described  include  some  that  are 
used  minced  or  pulped  in  food  products. 

The  potato  and  the  beet  are  not  only  important  vegetables,  but  the 
former  is  a  raw  material  for  the  manufacture  of  starch  and  alcohol,  and 
the  latter  is  the  source  of  a  large  part  of  the  world's  supply  of  sugar. 

The  potato  and  sweet  potato  are  identified  by  the  starch  grains; 
the  beet,  carrot,  and  turnip  by  the  vessels. 

POTATO. 

The  potato  (Solanum  tuberosum  L.  order  Solanacece),  a  native  of 
South  America,  was  introduced  into  Europe  in  1560-1570,  and  was 


FIG.  316.  Potato  (Solanum  tuberosum). 
Cross  section  of  tuber  showing  cork 
cells  and  starch  parenchyma.  X 1 60: 

(MOELLER.) 


FIG.  317.    Potato.   Cork  tissue  in  surface 
view.     Xi6o.  -(MOELLER.) 


first  cultivated  on  a  considerable  scale  in  Italy  and  Holland.  For  the 
past  hundred  years  it  has  been  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  cultivated 
plants  throughout  the  temperate  zone,  the  tubers  serving  as  a  vegetable 

1  The  descriptions  of  tubers  and  roots  are  by  PROF.  J.  MOELLER. 


POTATO.    JAPANESE  POTATO. 


415 


and  for  the  manufacture  of  starch,  glucose  and  alcohol.  The  tubers 
differ  in  form  and  size,  also  in  the  texture,  color  and  flavor  of  the  flesh. 
They  bear  numerous  "eyes"  or  buds  in  depressions  on  the  surface. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Cork.  The  protective  coat  on  the  surface  is  a  cork  tissue  (Fig.  316), 
with  large  cells,  which  in  surface  view  are  polygonal  (Fig.  317). 

Parenchyma.  The  outer  layers  are  tangentially  elongated,  and  con- 
tain proteid  matter  in  the  form  of  small  aleurone  grains.  Further  in- 
ward the  cells  are  large,  isodiametric,  with  intercellular  spaces.  They 
are  filled  with  starch  grains,  most  of  which  are  large,  irregularly  pear- 
shaped,  with  distinct  rings  and  an  excentric  hilum  located  in  the  small 
end  (See  p.  659). 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  starch  grains  (Fig.  581)  are  highly  characteristic. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Moeller  (29);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34). 

JAPANESE    POTATO. 

Under  this  name  are  known  the  tubers  of  an  Asiatic  plant  (Stachys 
Sieboldii  Miq.,  order  Labiates).  They  are  2-5  cm.  long,  i  cm.  thick, 


FIG.  318.     Japanese  Potato  (Stachys  Sieboldii).     Epidermis  of  tuber  in  surface  view. 

(MOELLER.) 

and  are  divided  into  joints  by  constrictions,  in  each  of  which  are  two 
opposite  membranaceous  leaves. 


41 6  VEGETABLES. 


HISTOLOGY. 

The  Epidermis  (Fig.  318)  consists  of  irregularly  polygonal  cells  and 
a  few  stomata. 

Between  the  Fibro-vascular  Bundles  are  numerous  small  sieve  tubes. 

The  Parenchyma  of  the  flesh  consists  of  unusually  small  cells,  con- 
taining a  soluble  carbohydrate,  stachyose.  In  tubers  dug  in  the  spring, 
starch  is  present. 

JERUSALEfl   ARTICHOKE. 

The  tubers  of  Helianthus  tuber osus  L.  (order  Composite),  a  North 
American  plant,  are  of  some  importance  as  food  for  both  man  and  cattle. 
They  are  red-brown,  elongated,  often  pear-shaped,  and  bear  small  roots, 
warty  sprouts,  and  transverse  rings.  The  flesh  is  white  or  red. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  bark  is  scarcely  i  mm.  thick. 

1.  The  Epidermis  (Fig.  319),  which  is  easily  removed,  consists  of 
large,  polygonal,  slightly  thickened  cells,  and  here  and  there  cork  tissue 
with  large  cells. 

2.  Cortex  (Fig.  319).     The  cells  are  quadrilateral,  and  often  trans- 


FLG.  319.     Jerusalem  Artichoke  (Helianthus  tuberosus).    Epidermis  and  one  of  the  paren- 
chyma layers  of  tuber  in  surface  view.     (MOELLER.) 

versely  elongated.     Some  of  them  have  somewhat   thickened,   scleren- 
chymatized  walls. 

3.  The  Bast  contains  balsam  ducts,  but  no  bast  fibers. 

4.  Xylem.     Within  the  indistinct  cambium  are  irregular  groups  of 
vessels,  often  in  radial  rows.     The  cavity  is  narrow;  the  walls  have  thick 


JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE.    BEET. 


417 


- 

:on- 


reticulations.     Large,   rather   thick-walled   cells   containing   inulin  con- 
stitute the  medullary  rays. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  balsam  tubes,  the  quadrilateral  stone  cells  of  the  cortex  and  the 
narrow  reticulated  vessels  serve  for  identification. 

BEET. 

The  roots  of  the  common  beet  (Beta  vulgaris  L.,  order  Chenopodiacea), 
and  particularly  the  exhausted  residue  from  the  beet-sugar  factories,  are 
used  both  as  cattle  foods  and  as  adulterants  of  chicory. 


HISTOLOGY. 

The  Cork  (Fig.  320)  forms  a  thin  outer  zone  of  large  cells  with  thick 
walls.  By  far  the 
larger  part  of  the  root 
consists  of  Parenchyma 
(Fig.  321,  p),  the  cells 
of  which  are  about 
250  jj.  in  diameter,  with 
walls  5  jj.  thick.  On 
warming  with  water 
or  soaking  for  a  short 
time  in  alkali,  inter- 
cellular material  is  evi- 
dent. 


FIG.    320.     Beet   (Beta  vul-  FIG.  321.     Beet.     Longitudinal   section    of    root,     p   paren- 

garis).    Cork  layers  of  root  chyma;     g     reticulated     vessels;     /    bast    fibers.      Xi6o. 

in  surface  view.      Xi6o.  (MoELLER.) 

(MOELLER.) 


4i  8 


VEGETABLES. 


The  Vessels  (Fig.  321,  g)  are  mostly  50  /JL,  occasionally  up  to  100  /*, 
the  reticulations  forming  broad  meshes. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See    General    Bibliography,   pp.    671-674:    Hanausek,  T.  F.   (16);    Mace  (26); 
Moeller  (29);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Vogl  (45,  48). 


CARROT. 

Occasionally  the  carrot  (Daucus  Carota  L.;  order  Umbellijerce)  is  em- 
ployed as  an  adulterant  of  chicory. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  Cork  and  Parenchyma  are  similar  to  those  of  the  beet,  but  the 


FIG.  322.     Carrot   (Daucus  Carota}.     Longitudinal  section  of  root  showing  parenchyma 
and  reticulated  vessels.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

parenchyma  consists  of  smaller  cells,  which  contain  yellow  chromoplasts 
suspended  in  the  cell  sap. 

The  Vessels  (Fig.  322,  g)  are   seldom  over  50  /*  broad,  and  are  charac- 


CARROT.      TURNIP. 


419 


terized  by  their  narrow  elongated  pores,  resembling  those  in  the  vessels 
of  the  dandelion  root. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  Bibliography  of  Beet. 

TURNIP. 

The  white  turnip   (Brasska  Rapa  L.,  order  Crucijera)  serves  as  a 
food  for  man  and  beast,  also  as  an  adulterant  of  coffee,  horseradish,  etc. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  cork  is  similar  to  that  of  the  beet,  but  the  cells  are  smaller.     More 
characteristic  are  the  cells  of  the  Parenchyma  (Fig.  323,  p),  which  are 

9 


FIG.  323.     White  Turnip  (Brassica  Rapa).     Longitudinal  section  of  root,     p  parenchyma; 
g  reticulated  vessels;   a  starch  grains.     X  160.     (MOELLER.) 

exceptionally  large  (commonly  500  /*)  and  thin-walled  (2  /*).  They  con- 
tain small  aleurone  grains,  and  here  and  there  crystal  sand  (calcium 
oxalate). 

The   Vessels  (g)  consist  of  short  joints,  and  have  narrow,  rounded 
pores  resembling  those  of  chicory. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  Bibliography  of  Beet. 

FUNGI.1 

Edible  fungi  when  whole  and  fresh  may  usually  be  distinguished  by 
their  gross  appearance.     Only  in  the  examination  of  the  dried  material 

1  The  descriptions  of  the  individual  fungi  are  by  PROF.  J.  MOELLER. 


420  VEGETABLES. 

or  food  products  containing  sliced  or  minced  fungi  is  the  microscope 
essential. 

The  common  species  found  on  the  market  belong  in  the  following 
subclasses  and  orders : 

Ascomycetes:  Spores  produced  within  sacs  (asci.) 

1.  Discomycetes :    Asci   borne   on   the   outer   surface   of   various 

shaped  fructifications  (e.g.,  Morel). 

2.  Tuberaceae:  Asci  borne  within  a  tuberous  fructification   (e.g., 

Truffles). 
Basidiomycetes:  Spores  produced  on  the  surface  of  sacs  (basidia). 

1.  Hymenomycetes :    Basidia  borne  within  the  (usually  umbrella- 

shaped)  fructification  on  gills  (e.g.,  common  mushroom),  rods 
(e.g.,  Boletus),  etc. 

2.  Gasteromycetes :   Basidia  borne  within  the  (often  tuber-shaped) 

fructification  (e.g.  puff-balls). 

The  descriptions  which  follow  are  designed  merely  to  aid  in  detect- 
ing adulteration  and  not  to  distinguish  edible  from  poisonous  species. 

\ 
\ 

TRUFFLES. 

Fungi  belonging  to  the  order  Tuber  acea  of  the  Ascomycetes  develop 
underground  tuberous  fructifications  known  as  truffles.  These  bodies 
are  black  or  dark  brown,  with  pyramidal  or  shield-shaped,  polygonal 
warts.  Cross  sections  show  cavities  or  channels  lined  with  masses  of 
hyphae  tissues  (hymenium),  in  which  are  borne  club-shaped  elements 
(asci),  each  containing  1-4  (seldom  more)  unicellular  spores  (Fig.  325). 
The  size,  form,  color  and  markings  of  the  spores  furnish  the  best  means 
for  identification  of  the  species.  They  are  obtained  for  study  either  by 
cutting  sections  of  the  inner  tissues,  or  by  scraping  the  inner  surface.  The 
following  are  the  common  species. 

i.  French  or  Perigord  Truffles  (Tuber  brumale  Vitt.)  because  of  their 
fine  flavor  are  the  most  highly  prized  of  the  group.  They  grow  mostly 
under  oaks  in  France,  Northern  Italy,  and  Southern  Germany.  The  fruit 
bodies  vary  from  the  size  of  a  hazelnut  to  that  of  an  apple.  On  the 
surface  they  are  black,  with  well-defined  warts ;  within  they  are  dark 
violet  or  red-black.  The  spores  are  coffee-brown,  elliptical,  25-45  /* 
long,  thickly  beset  with  prickles  (Fig.  326,  d).  The  true  perigord  truffle 
(var.  M elanos pernmm)  has  dark,  very  aromatic  flesh,  and  almost  black, 
often  large  spores  (Fig.  326,  c). 


TRUFFLES. 


421 


2.  German  or  Hanover  Truffles  (Tuber  astivum  Vitt,  also  var.  mesen- 
tericum  and  uncinatum)  are  less  aromatic  than  the  preceding.  They  are 
obtained  from  Northern  Italy, 
France,  Germany,  Switzerland,  and 
Bohemia.  The  flesh  is  lighter  than 
that  of  French  truffles,  and  the 


FIG.  324.     German  Truffles  (Tuber  cesti-     FIG.  325.     French  Truffles  (Tuber  brumale]. 
vum).     Vertical   section   showing  rind,          Section  showing  hyphae  and  spore-bear- 
air  passages,  dark  veins  of  compressed         ing  asci.     X400.     (TULASNE.) 
hyphae,  and  masses  of  asci.     Natural 
size.     (TULASNE.) 

yellow  or  coffee-brown  spores  (Fig.  326,  a,  b)  are  characterized  by  their 
broad  reticulations. 

DIAGNOSIS. 
Whole  truffles  cannot  be  successfully  adulterated,  but  in  the  dried 


FIG.  326.     Spores  of  Truffles  and  Substitutes,     a  and  b  German  Truffles;    c  and  d  French 
truffles;    e  white  truffles;    /  false  truffles  (Scleroderma);  g  false  truffles  (Rhizopogon). 

(MEZ.) 

condition  other  fungi  are  often  substituted.     Truffled   pates  frequently 
contain  these  substitutes.     They  are  detected  by   their  color   and   the 


422 


VEGETABLES. 


characters  of  the  spores,  although  it  is  difficult  or  impossible  to  determine 
the  exact  species. 

The  following  are  the  common  substitutes : 

1.  White  Truffles  (Choiromyces  maeandrijormis  Vitt.)   are  found  in 
England  and  middle   Europe.     They  are  light   yellow-brown,   and   re- 
semble potatoes  in  external  appearance.     The  flesh  is  white  to  brown, 
with  brown  veins,  and  is  but  slightly  aromatic*.     The  small  (15-20  /*) 
globular  spores  are  light  brown,  beset  with  numerous  prickles  of  unequal 
length  (Fig.  326,  e). 

2.  False  Truffles  (Scleroderma  vulgar  e  Hornem. — Gasteromycetes)  are 
aerial,    tuberous    bodies    about    the    size  of   genuine    truffles,    with    a 
skin  2-3  mm.  thick.     Within,  the  tissues  are  at  first  white,  later  gray  to 
black.     The  small  spores  are  globular,  black,  with  prickly  warts   (Fig. 
326,  /).     They  can  only  be  used  green,  in  which  state  they  have  a'  dis- 
agreeable flavor  quite  unlike  that  of  real  truffles. 

3.  Species    of    Rhizopogon    (Gasteromycetes)    develop    under    ground 
tuberous  bodies,  externally  similar  to  those  of  Scleroderma.     They  have 

a  membranous  or  leathery  periderm  difficultly  separ- 
able from  the  flesh,  and  very  small,  ellipsoidal,  smooth, 
almost  colorless  spores  (Fig.  326,  g). 

4.  Species  of  Elaphomyces  are  closely  related  to 
real  truffles.  Their  fruit  bodies  develop  under  ground, 
and  on  ripening  are  converted  into  a  powdery  mass. 
They  are  not  edible. 

flORELS. 

The  morels  'belong  to  the  order  Discomycetes,  of  the 
subclass  Ascomycetes.  The  fleshy,  club-shaped  or 
globular  head  is  borne  on  a  stalk.  The  hymenium 
(Fig.  327)  covers  the  reticulated  outer  surface  of  the 
head,  and  consists  of  a  palisade-like  layer  of  asci 
and  paraphyses,  each  of  the  former  containing  eight 
smooth,  mostly  ellipsoidal  spores. 

The  following  species  are  of  importance: 
i.  The  Common  Morel  (Morchella  esculenta  Pers.) 
has   a  hollow  stalk,  yellow  to  brown  head,  and  ochre-colored  spores. 
2.  The    Spring  Morel  (Gyromitra  esculenta  Fr.)  has  a  hollow  stalk, 
hollow  or  collapsed  coffee-brown  head,  and  white  spores. 


FIG.  327.  Common 
Morel  (Morchella 
esculenta).  Cross 
section  through 
hymenium,  show- 
ing asci  and  para- 
physes. (M.EZ.) 


MORELS.     MUSHROOMS, 


423 


3.  The  Autumn  Morel  (Helvetia  Injula  Schaffer)  has  a  thin  brown 
head  united  only  in  the  middle  with  the  stalk,  and  white  spores. 

All  the  species  are  edible,  although  the  spring  morel  and  some  others 
must  be  first  treated  with  hot  water  to  remove  a  poisonous  principle, 
which  also  disappears  slowly  on  drying. 

nusHROons. 

These  are  umbrella-shaped,  and  bear  the  hymenium  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  head.  They  belong  to  the  order  Hymenomycetes  of  the 
subclass  Basidiomycetes. 

i.  The  Field  Mushroom  (Psalliota  campestris  Fr.,  Agaricus  cam- 
pestris — Agaricinea)  has  when  young  a  globular  head,  which  later  becomes 
spreading,  reaching  1 5  cm.  in  breadth. 
The  upper  surface  is  brownish; 
the  flesh  is  white.  On  the  under 
surface  are  numerous  spore-bearing 
gills,  which  are  at  first  pink,  but  later 
are  brown,  as  are  also  the  elliptical 
spores  (8:6//).  The  stalk  is  white, 
6-8  cm.  long,  with  a  thick  mem- 
branous ring  (volva)  near  the  center. 
Cross-sections  through  the  lamellae 
show  in  the  middle  a  layer  of  broad 
hyphae  (Fig.  329),  flanked  on  both  sides 
by  small  hyphae  from  which  spring 
the  basidia,  also  the  sterile  bodies 
known  as  paraphyses.  The  spores  are  borne  on  the  surface  of  the  basidia. 


FIG.  328.  Field  Mushroom  (Psalliota 
(Agaricus}  campestris}.  i  Natural 
size,  showing  /  lamellae.  2  Cross  section 
of  a  lamella,  magnified.  (SACHS.) 


FIG.  329.     Field  Mushroom.     Cross  section  of  a  lamella,  strongly  magnified.     (MEZ.) 

.    The  poisonous   Amanila   phalloides   Quel   (A.   bulbosa   Bull.)   has  a 
bulbous  thickening  at  the  base  of  the  stalk,  bordered  by  a  sac-like  mem- 


424 


VEGETABLES. 


brane,  also  white  spores.     Cross  sections  of  the  lamellae  show  that  the 
middle  hyphae  layer  is  surrounded  by    hyphae  spreading  out   in   bows 

(Fig.  33°)- 

2.  Boletus  edulis  Bull.  (B.  bulbosus  Schaff. — Polyporea)  and  other  edible 
species  of  Bcletus,  are  distinguished   from  the  species  of   the  Agaricinece 


FlG.  330.     Poisonous  Amanita  (.4.  phalloides).     Cross  section  of  a  lamella.     (Mzz.) 

by  the  thick  swollen  stalk,  and  the  dependent  tubes  on  the  under  surface 
of  the  head.  The  brown  head  is  at  first  semiglobular,  later  spreading, 
reaching  20  cm.  Its  flesh  is  white,  and  does  not  greatly  change  in  color 
on  exposure.  The  tube  layer,  which  is  easily  removed  from  the  under 
side  of  the  head,  is  at  first  white,  later  yellow  or  green-yellow.  The 
spores  are  spindle-shaped,  smooth,  yellow  or  brown. 


PART  VIII. 

ALKALOIDAL   PRODUCTS   AND  THEIR 
SUBSTITUTES. 


ALKALOIDAL    PRODUCTS.1 

Savage  and  civilized  nations  alike  are  addicted  to  the  use  of  alka- 
loidal  as  well  as  alcoholic  stimulants.  The  American  aborigines  long  before 
the  discovery  of  the  continent  by  Columbus  were  acquainted  with  the 
virtues  of  the  cocoa  bean  and  the  tobacco  leaf,  and  the  natives  of  West 
Africa  have  for  centuries  chewed  the  cola  nut.  The  products  here 
described  include  those  containing  caffein,  theobromin  and  nicotine,  also 
certain  substitutes  free  from  alkaloids.  Opium  and  other  more  potent 
alkaloidal  products  are  considered  in  works  on  pharmacognosy. 

COFFEE. 

Coffee,  next  to  sugar  the  most  important  product  imported  from 
the  tropics,  is  the  seed  of  a  small  tree  or  shrub,  Co  flea  Arabica  L.  (order 
Rubiacece),  a  native  of  Abyssinia  and  other  parts  of  Africa.  In  the  fifteenth 
century  the  tree  was  introduced  into  Arabia,  where  the  beverage  became 
popular  with  all  classes,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the  Moham- 
medan priests.  Coffee  drinking  was  soon  taken  up  by  all  the  Saracenic 
races  and  later  by  the  European  nations. 

For  over  two  hundred  years  the  culture  of  the  coffee  tree  was  limited 
to  Arabia,  but  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  it  was  suc- 
cessfully undertaken  by  the  Dutch  in  Java,  and  somewhat  later  in  Surinam, 
and  the  industry  soon  spread  over  Sumatra,  India,  Ceylon,  Western 
Africa,  and  other  parts  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  as  well  as  over  the 
West  Indies  and  the  tropical  parts  of  South  America.  To-day  Brazil 
leads  the  world  in  coffee  production,  although  the  choicest  grades  come 
from  Arabia  (genuine  Mocha  coffee)  and  Java. 

The  white  and  delightfully  fragrant  flowers  of  the  coffee  tree  are 
produced  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  The  fruit  (Fig.  331)  is  about  the 
size  of  a  small  cherry,  and  is  red  or  purple  when  fully  ripe.  It  normally 

1  The  descriptions  of  tea,  tobacco,  and  all  other  leaves,  also  of  chicory,  dandelion, 
guarana,  and  cola  nut  are  by  PROF.  J.  MOELLER. 

427 


428 


ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 


contains  two  cells,  each  with  a  single  plano-convex  seed  (Figs.  331   and 
332)  so  situated  that  the  flat  surfaces  of  the  two  seeds  adjoin  one  another, 


Mk 


Ek 


rad 


FIG*  331.  Coffee  (Coffea  Arabica).  I  cross  section  of  berry,  natural  size.  Pk  outer  peri- 
carp; Mk  endocarp;  Ek  spermoderm;  Sa  hard  endosperm;  Sp  soft  endosperm.  // 
longitudinal  section  of  berry,  natural  size;  Dis  bordered  disc;  Se  remains  of  sepals; 
Em  embryo.  ///  embryo,  enlarged:  cot  cotyledon;  rad  radicle.  (TSCHIRCH  and 
OESTERLE.) 

but  in  the  so-called  peaberry  coffee,  one  of  the  ovules  is  abortive,  the  other 
developing  into  a  rounded  seed  filling  the  single  cavity.  The  outer  portion 
of  the  fruit  is  dark  colored  and  pulpy,  lined  by  a  buff,  parchment -like 
endocarp.  The  seeds,  which  before  roasting  are  yellow  or  light  green, 
have  a  longitudinal  cleft  on  the  flattened  side  due 
to  the  folding  of  the  endosperm.  A  papery  spermo- 
derm, known  as  the  silver  skin,  covers  not  only 
the  outer  surface  but  penetrates  also  the  cleft. 
The  minute  embryo  (Fig.  331,  //  Em,  III)  is 
situated  in  the  endosperm  near  the  base  of  the 
seed. 

Various   processes,    some    dry,    others   wet,    are 
employed   for  removing   the  pericarp  and  spermo- 
derm from  the  seed.     In  the  West  Indies  and  South 
America,  the  larger  part  of   the  fruit  flesh  is  first 
FIG.  332 .    Coffee.   Cross-  removed   by  a  pulper,   after  which    the  pulp   still 
section  of  bean  showing  adhering  is  loosened  by  a  fermentation  process  and 

folded    endosperm  with 

hard  and  soft  tissues,  washed  away  by  water.     After  drying,  the  spermo- 
derm and  endocarp  are  broken  away  from  the  seed 

and  separated  by  winnowing.  The  spermoderm  is  also  removed  from  the 
surface  but  not  from  the  cleft.  Roasting  swells  the  seed  greatly,  changes 
its  color  to  dark  brown,  and  develops  the  characteristic  odor  and  flavor 
of  roasted  coffee  by  the  formation  of  caffeol  and  other  substances. 


COFFEE. 


429 


HISTOLOGY. 

As  fresh  material  is  not  obtainable  in  the  temperate  zone  except  from 
botanical  gardens,  alcoholic  or  dried  specimens  must  be  used  for  histo- 
logical  studies. 

Coffee  beans,  as  found  on  the  market,  whether  unroasted  or  roasted, 
consist  only  of  the  endosperm,  embryo,  and  that  portion  of  the  spermo- 
derm  within  the  cleft,  although  occa- 
sionally fragments  of  the  pericarp 
occur   with  the  beans   as   an  acci- 
dental impurity.     The  pericarp  may 
be    sectioned    dry,    the    endosperm 
after  soaking  in  water. 

The  Pericarp  after  drying  is  of 
a  dark  color  about  0.5  mm.  thick. 
As  the  outer  layers  are  soft  and 
the  endocarp  hard,  no  little  difficulty 
is  experienced  in  preparing  sections. 
For  cutting  transverse  sections,  the 
dry  material  freed  from  the  seed 
may  be  embedded  in  hard  paraffine 
and  cut  with  a  strong  razor  or 
microtome  knife,  taking  care  that 
the  palisade  cells  and  endocarp, 
which  are  liable  to  separate  from  the 
outer  layers,  are  not  lost.  Staining 
with  safranin,  naphthylene  blue  or 
methylene  blue  is  recommended. 

1.  The  Epicarp  Cells  (Figs.  333 
and   334,   ep)    are   15-35   V-   broad, 

sharply  polygonal,  occasionally  four-  FIG.  333.     Coffee.     Cross  section  of  hull  and 

.  ,  bean.     Pericarp  consists  of  J  epicarp,  2,  J 

Sided,    With    brown   Walls    and    COn-  iayers    of    mcsocarp    with   4  fibro-vascular 

tents.        Stomata    with    tWO    accom-  bundle,  5  Palisade   layer   and  6  endocarp; 

ss  spermoderm  consists  of  8  sclerenchyma 

panying  cells    similar  to    the    guard  and'    9      parenchyma;  •    end      endosperm, 

n  '  .      F                                         T    ,  (TSCHIRCH  and  OESTERLE.) 

cells  m  form  occur  here  and  there. 

2.  Mesocarp    (Figs.    333,    334,    and    335).     Proceeding    inward,    the 
cells  increase  in  size  until  they  reach  a  maximum  of  about  100  /z.     Their 
walls  are  thick  and  either  brown  or  yellow.     Brown  amorphous  masses 
and  occasionally  large  crystals  are  noticeable  in  the  outer  layers.     In 


43° 


ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 


the  innermost  part  of  the  mesocarp,  through  which  ramify  the  fibro- 
vascular  bundles,  the  cells  are  commonly  compressed.  The  strongly 
developed  bundles  contain  bast  fibers  up  to  i  mm.  long  and  25  ta  broad, 
with  thick  walls  and  narrow  lumen,  spiral  vessels  mostly  narrower  than 
the  bast  fibers,  but  with  noticeably  thick  spirals,  pitted  vessels,  and  other 
less  conspicuous  elements. 

3.  Palisade  Layer  (Fig.  333,  5).      These  cells    are  greatly  elongated 
in  radial  directions  and  have  walls  of  mucilaginous  structure  which  swell 

I 
P  Ip 


FIG.  334.     Coffee.     Surface  view  of  ep  epicarp       FIG.  335.     Coffee.     Elements  of  pericarp  in 
and    p   outer    parenchyma    of    mesocarp.  surface  view,     p  parenchyma;   bp  paren- 

Xi6o.     (MoELLER.)  chyma  of  fibro-vascular  bundle;     b  bast 

fiber;  sp  spiral  vessel.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 

in  water.  Because  of  these  peculiarities,  as  well  as  the  difficulties  of 
cutting  so  soft  a  tissue  when  adjoining  a  hard  coat  like  the  endocarp, 
special  care  must  be  exercised  in  preparing  sections.  Safranin  stains 
the  swollen  wall  carmine,  but  does  not  affect  the  yellowish  contents. 
Vogl  states  that  naphthylene  blue  colors  both  the  walls  and  contents  blue- 
violet. 

4.  Endocarp  (Fig.  333,  6\  Fig.  336).  Closely  united  with  the  palisade 
layer  is  the  thin,  but  hard,  buff-colored  endocarp  resembling  in  macro- 
scopic and  microscopic  structure  the  endocarp  of  the  apple.  The  fibers 
cross  one  another  at  various  angles,  but  in  the  outer  layers  their  general 
direction  is  longitudinal,  while  in  the  inner  layer  it  is  transverse.  The 
fibers  of  the  inner  layer  are  thin-walled,  whereas  those  of  the  other  layers 
are  thick-walled  and  conspicuously  porous. 

Spermoderm.  Although  the  spermoderm  is  removed  from  the  sur- 
face of  'most  of  the  seeds  in  preparing  them  for  market,  fragments  suffi- 


COFFEE. 


431 


cient  for  study  may  often  be  obtained  from  unroasted  coffee.    Within 
the  cleft  the  spermoderm  is  almost  always  intact,  even  after  roasting, 


FIG.  336.     Coffee.     Sclerenchyma  fibers  of  endocarp.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

and  may  be  readily  removed  in  one  piece  after  soaking  the  seed  for  some 
hours  in  water. 

i.  Sclerenchyma  Cells  (Fig.  333,  8\   Fig.  337,  st)  form  the  character- 
istic outer  layer.     In  the  early  stages  of  development  the  coat  is  uninter- 


FJG.  337.     Coffee.     Spermoderm  in  surface  view,     st  Sclerenchyma;    p  compressed  paren- 
chyma.    Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

rupted,  but  in  the  mature  seed,  as  a  result  of  more  rapid  growth  of  adjoin- 
ing tissues,  they  are  more  or  less  detached,  occurring  singly,  in  pairs  or 


43 2  ALKALOID AL   PRODUCTS. 

in  groups,  either  widely  separated  or  with  only  small  intercellular  spaces 
between  them.  They  vary  from  less  than  100  fj.  to  over  i  mm.  in  length 
and  from  15-50  /*  in  breadth.  The  longer  cells,  occurring  in  groups 
within  the  cleft,  are  straight  and  narrow,  resembling  bast  fibers,  while 
the  medium  and  shorter  cells,  occurring  both  on  the  surface  and  in  the 
cleft,  are  broader  and  more  irregular  in  outline,  vermiform  and  club- 
shaped  forms  predominating,  although  triangular  and  various  fantastic 
shapes  are  not  uncommon.  Great  variations  in  the  thickness  of  the 
walls  and  the  size  and  number  of  the  pores  are  also  noticeable. 

2.  Parenchyma  Cells  (Fig.  333,  p;  Fig.  337,  p),  more  or  less  obliter- 
ated, form  the  remainder  of  the  spermoderm.  Occasionally  cells  with 
beaded  walls  are  distinguishable,  but  in  most  parts  the  cells  are  not 
clearly  evident,  the  tissue  appearing  like  a  structureless  membrane. 
Through  this  tissue  in  the  cleft  runs  the  raphe,  with  narrow  spiral  vessels, 
which  are  best  seen  after  treatment  with  alkali  or  chloral  hydrate. 

Endosperm  (Figs.  333  and  338).  Coffee,  like  the  date  stone  and  the 
ivory-nut,  contains  only  the  minutest  traces  of  starch,  the  carbohydrate 


FIG.  338.     Coffee.     Cross  section  of  outer  layers  of  endosperm  showing  knotty  thickenings 
of  cell  walls.     Xioo.     (MOELLER.) 

reserve  material  being  largely  in  the  form  of  cellulose  stored  up  in  the 
cell-walls  of  the  endosperm.  In  sections,  the  cell-walls,  except  in  the 
outer  layers,  appear  to  be  knotty-thickened,  owing  to  the  large  pores 
by  which  they  are  pierced,  the  double  walls  in  the  knots  ranging  up  to 
20  fi  in  thickness.  The  cells  are  smallest  in  the  cuticularized  outer  layer, 
where  they  are  15-50  JJL  in  diameter,  but  in  the  inner  layers  they  often 
reach  100  /*.  To  the  naked  eye  the  central  portion  of  the  endosperm 
(Fig  332)  has  a  somewhat  different  appearance  from  the  remainder,  due 
to  the  presence  of  an  interrupted  series  of  tangentially  elongated  cells, 


COFFEE.  433 

the  walls  of  which,  excepting  the  middle  lamella,  are  composed  of  a 
mucilaginous  substance,  and  consequently  disappear  on  treatment  with 
water.  It  is  in  this  mucilaginous  tissue  pear  the  base  that  the  minute 
embryo  is  embedded.  Tschirch  regards  this  soft  tissue  as  useful  in  facili- 
tating the  absorption  of  the  reserve  material  by  the  sprouting  plantlet. 

Treatment  with  various  reagents^and  stains,  such  as  chlorzinc  iodine, 
iodine-sulphuric  acid,  naphthylene  blue,  and  safranin,  show  that  the  thick- 
ened cell-walls  consist  of  cellulose.  Reagents  also  serve  for  the  identi- 
fication of  the  cell-contents.  For  example,  concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
produces  a  fine  red  color  showing  the  presence  of  sugars,  iron  salts  give 
a  green  color  due  to  tannic  acid,  various  reagents  show  the  presence 
of  proteids,  sometimes  in  the  form  of  aleurone  grains,  while  numerous 
micro-tests  given  by  Tschirch  and  Oesterle  confirm  the  presence  of  caf- 
fein.  Vogl  notes  that  sections  are  colored  an  intense  yellow  by  caustic 
potash  and  soda,  and  a  green-yellow  changing  to  green  by  ammonia. 
Heating  with  chloral  hydrate  imparts  a  blue-green  coloration  to  the 
contents,  but  this  reaction,  as  well  as  some  of  the  others,  is  not  distinct 
in  the  case  of  roasted  coffee,  and  is  therefore  of  no  practical  value. 

The  Embryo  (Fig.  331,  ///)  may  be  obtained  by  cutting  a  bean,  previ- 
ously soaked  overnight  in  water,  through  the  cleft  and  carefully  splitting 
open  the  endosperm  through  the  mucilage  cells. 
After  longer  soaking  in  water  or  in  dilute  alkali, 
the  embryo  bursts  through  the  endosperm  at  the 
basal  end.  The  blunt  radicle  is  3-4  mm.  long, 
the  heart-shaped  cotyledons  1-2  mm.  long.  After 
clearing  with  alkali,  or  better  with  Javelle  water  FIG.  339.  Coffee.  Tis- 
or  chloral  hydrate,  the  cotyledons  are  seen  to  have  tion.  ^X'^O^MO'EL"- 
three  pairs  of  sparingly  branching  nerves.  The  LER-) 
small  cells  and  procambium  bundles  filled  with  protoplasm  and  fat  are 
of  little  diagnostic  importance  (Fig.  339). 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Coffee  reaches  the  consumer  either  "green"  (unroasted)  or  roasted, 
and  in  the  latter  case  either  whole  or  ground.  Roasting,  as  ordinarily 
conducted,  changes  the  color  of  the  bean  to  a  rich  brown  which  renders 
most  of  the  microchemical  tests  of  little  value,  but  does  not  seriously 
obscure  the  structure  of  either  the  spermoderm  or  endosperm. 

Whole  Coffee,  also  known  as  "coffee  beans"  and  "coffee  berries," 
is  characterized  by  the  form  and  horny  texture  of  the  endosperm,  and  the 


434  ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 

presence  of  the  spermoderm  or  "chaff"  in  the  cleft.  The  spermoderm 
without  special  preparation  is  readily  identified  under  the  microscope  by 
the  more  or  less  isolated  sclerenchyma  cells;  the  endosperm,  in  section, 
by  the  knotty-thickened  walls,  and  the  absence  of  more  than  the  faintest 
trace  of  starch. 

The  adulteration  of  genuine  coffee  with  beans  previously  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  coffee  extract  cannot  be  detected  by  microscopical 
examination,  although  the  coating  of  these  beans,  as  well  as  of  inferior 
grades  of  unextracted  coffee,  with  various  pigments,  is  sometimes  evident 
in  microscopic  sections. 

Ground  Coffee  varies  in  fineness  from  coarsely  crushed  beans  to  a 
powder  passing  a  i  mm.  sieve.  Usually  there  is  an  abundance  of  frag- 
ments large  enough  to  section  with  a  razor,  either  dry  or  after  soaking, 
thus  permitting  an  examination  of  the  cell-walls  of  the  endosperm  (Fig. 
338).  The  papery  flakes  of  spermoderm  (Fig.  337)  may  be  picked  out 
with  forceps. 

If  a  handful  is  stirred  with  cold  water,  true  coffee,  except  for  a  few 
over- roasted  fragments,  floats;  whereas  the  common  adulterants,  including 
peas  and  other  legumes,  cereal  grains,  chicory  and  other  roots,  imitation 
coffee,  etc.,  sink  rapidly  to  the  bottom,  their  nature  being  determined  by 
microscopic  examination.  Artificial  coffee  made  from  oil-seed  products 
is  said  to  float. 

Outer  Coffee  Hulls,  consisting  of  the  epicarp,  the  mesocarp,  and 
traces  of  the  palisade  layer,  are  utilized  by  the  Arabians  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  fermented  liquor,  "Kischer"  or  "Gischr."  These  hulls  are 
also  exported  from  coffee-growing  regions  under  the  names  "Sultan 
coffee,"  and  " sacca-coffee, "  as  an  adulterant  of  coffee,  the  fact  that  they 
are  a  product  of  the  coffee  tree  and  the  claim  that  they  contain  a  certain 
amount  of  caffein  and  other  valuable  constituents  being  offered  as  excuses 
for  their'  use.  These  claims  are  not  worthy  of  consideration,  as  the 
product  is  even  more  worthless  than  most  of  the  common  substitutes. 

The  hulls  occur  in  small  amount  in  genuine  coffee,  but  when  the 
amount  is  considerable,  adulteration  is  indicated.  They  are  of  a  black 
color,  with  a  small  ring  about  2  mm.  in  diameter  at  the  upper  end,  in 
the  middle  of  which  is  the  scar  of  the  style.  Highly  characteristic  ele- 
ments being  absent,  it  is  often  difficult  to  identify  the  material  in  pow- 
der form.  The  epicarp  (Fig.  334,  ep)  and  brown  mesocarp  resemble 
the  corresponding  tissues  of  the  carob  bean,  though  the  epicarp  of  coffee 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  stomata  with  two  adjoining  cells  and  the 


COFFEE.  435 

thicker-walled  mesocarp,  the  contents  of  which  do  not  give  the  blue  or 
violet  color  on  warming  with  alkali. 

Inner  Coffee  Hulls,  consisting  of  endocarp  with  particles  of  the  ad- 
hering palisade  layers,  are  parchment-like  in  texture  and  of  a  buff  color. 
Although  they  have  scarcely  more  value  than  sawdust,  they  have  been  used 
in  the  United  States  as  an  adulterant  of  wheat  bran  and  other  cattle  foods. 
Charred  hulls  have  recently  been  detected  by  the  writer  in  ground  pepper. 
This  material  is  characterized  by  the  groups  of  crossing  fibers  (Fig.  336). 

Artificial  Coffee  Beans  moulded  from  dough,  sometimes  with  the 
admixture  of  chicory  and  other  materials,  resemble  genuine  roasted 
beans  in  form  and  color,  but  are  distinguished  by  the  exact  correspon- 
dence of  beans  from  the  same  mould,  the  shallow  cleft,  the  absence 
of  chaff  in  the  cleft,  the  granular  texture,  and  other  physical  charac- 
teristics which  can  be  learned  only  by  experience.  As  usually  prepared, 
they  sink  at  once  in  cold  water.  Under  the  microscope,  starch  and  other 
elements  of  the  constituents  are  identified. 

Artificial  Broken  Coffee  similar  to  the  artificial  beans,  but  made  in 
irregular  lumps,  not  moulded  in  the  forms  of  beans,  resembles  closely 
broken  coffee  beans  and  serves  as  an  adulterant  both  for  whole  and  ground 
coffee.  Another  form  of  artificial  coffee  much  used  in  America  consists 
of  pea  hulls,  cereal  matter,  and  molasses,  made  into  small  pellets. 

The  Fruits  and  Seeds  used  most  commonly  as  substitutes  or  adulter- 
ants of  coffee  are  wheat,  rye,  barley,  maize,  and  other  cereals,  also  cereal 
products,  such  as  bran,  middlings,  bread,  etc.;  peas,  beans,  lupines, 
cassia  seeds,  astragalus  seeds,  Parkia  seeds,  chick  peas,  soja  beans,  pea- 
nuts, and  other  leguminous  seeds ;  dried  figs,  prunes,  pears,  bananas,  and 
carob  bean  pods;  date  stones,  ivory  nuts,  acorns,  grape  seeds,  fruit  of  the 
wax  palm,  cola  nut  (Mussaende-Kaffee),  and  false  flax. 

Roots.  Chicory  is  by  far  the  commonest  root  used  in  coffee.  It  is 
gummy,  sweet  to  the  taste,  colors  cold  water  a  deep  yellow,  and  is  identi- 
fied by  the  vessels  and  latex  cells.  Other  roots  used  are  dandelion, 
beet,  turnip,  and  carrot,  all  of  these  being  adulterants  of  chicory. 

Coffee  Substitutes  (European).  Among  the  hundreds  of  proprie- 
tary articles  sold  in  Europe  as  substitutes  for  coffee  are  the  following: 
"Kanon"  (rye,  coffee,  chicory);  "Datel  Kaffee"  (wheat,  chicory,  figs, 
and  coffee);  " Homeopathischer  Gesundheitskaffee "  (wheat,  chicory, 
and  cocoa  shells);  " Hygienischer  Nahrkaffee"  (cereals  and  acorns); 
"German  Soda  Coffee"  (cereals,  chicory,  and  sodium  carbonate); 
"Jamaika  Kaffee"  (barley);  "Mokka-Sakka-Kaffee"  (barley  and  other 


436  ALKALO1DAL  PRODUCTS. 

constituents);  "  Saladinkaffee "  (maize);  "  Malto-Kaffee "  (malt  or 
mixtures  of  malt  and  other  cereals);  " Kraft-Kaffee, "  "  Frucht- Kaffee  " 
and  "Allerwelts  Kaffee"  (lupine  seeds);  "Mogdad,"  "Neger,"  and 
"  Stephanie- Kaffee "  (seeds  of  Cassia  occidentalis  and  C.  sophora); 
"Sudan- Kaffee"  (seeds  of  Parkia  Africana  and  P.  biglobosa);  "Schwe- 
dische  Kontinental- Kaffee"  (seeds  of  Astragalus  boeticus);  "Deutscher" 
or  " Franzosischer  Kaffee"  (chick  pea);  "  Ungar^scher  Kaffee"  (coffee, 
lupines,  and  chicory);  " Af ricanischer  Nussbohnen  Kaffee"  (peanuts); 
"Bayrischer  Kaffee"  (beets,  figs,  rye,  and  legumes);  "Mokara"  or  "Fei- 
genkaffee"  (figs);  "Figine"  (figs  and  chicory);  "Melilotin  Kaffee"  (coffee, 
chicory,  and  date  stones);  "Almond  Coffee"  (originally  made  of  the 
tubers  of  Cyperus  esculentus  L.,  later  of  acorns,  chicory,  and  dandelion 
root);  "Frank  Kaffee"  (chicory);  "Cafe  de  Rheims"  and  "Rations 
Coffee"  of  the  French  army  (coffee  and  chicory);  "Domkaffee" 
(chicory). 

Coffee  Substitutes  (American).  Among  the  preparations  made  in 
the  United  States,  the  following  have  been  found  to  consist  of  various 
preparations  of  cereals:  "Ralston  Cereal  Coffee,"  "Grain-O,"  "Postum 
Cereal  Coffee,"  "Ayer's  Hygienic  Substitute  for  Coffee,"  "New  Era 
Hygienic  Coffee,"  "Shredded  Cereal  Coffee,"  "J.  W.  Clark's  Phosphi 
Cereal  Nervine  Coffee,"  and  many  others.  Other  preparations  are: 
"Old  Grist  Mill  Entire  Wheat  Coffee"  (wheat,  peas,  and  real  coffee); 
"Fischer  Mills  Fresh  Roasted  Malt  Coffee;"  "Kneipp  Malt  Coffee" 
(barley  or  malt);  "Kentucky  Coffee"  (Caesalpinia  pulcherrima) . 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:   Berg  (3);  Greenish  (14);  Hanausek,  T.  F. 

(10);  Hassall  (19);   Leach  (25);  Mace  (26);  Moeller  (29,  30,  31,  32);   Molisch  (33); 

Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Schimper  (37);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin 

(42);  Vogl(43,  45). 

BRUNOTTE:   A  Pseudo-substitute  of  Coffee.     Rev.  internal,  falsificat.  1896,  9,  48. 

CAZENEUVE:   Artificial  Coffee  Beans.     Petit  mon.  de  la  pharm.  1894,  1513. 

COSTER,  HOORN  u.  M AZURE:  Falsifications  observees  en  Holland.  Rev.  internal, 
falsificat.  1887-88,  1,  162.  1890,  4,  7. 

CRIBB:  Note  on  (i)  Samples  of  Coffee  Containing  Added  Starch;  (2)  Sample  of  Artifi- 
cial Coffee  Berries.  Analyst.  1902,  27,  114. 

DRAPER:  Detection  of  Coffee  Adulterations.     Phil.  Mag.  34,  104. 

DUSTAN:  Der  sogenannte  Mussaenda-Kaffee  von  Reunion.  Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters. 
Hyg.  1890,  4,  13. 

FRICKE:    Sogenannter  Congo-Kaffee.     Ztschr.  angew.  Chem.  1889,  2,  121. 


COFFEE.  437 

GAWALOWSKI:    Ersatzmittel  fiir  Kaffeebohnen.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.   1896,  9, 

123. 

GREINERT:   Ueber  Negerkaffee.     Pharm.  Ztg.  1889,  34,  192. 
GUNDRISER:    Ueber  ein  Kaffeesurrogat  aus  den  Samen  der  blauen  Lupine  (Lupinus 

angust ifolius] .     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1892,  6,  373. 
HANAUSEK,  E.:    Kiinstliche  Kaffeebohnen.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1890,  4,  25, 

172. 

HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:   Dattelkerne  als  Kaffeesurrogat.     Chem.  Ztg.  1886,  10,  701. 
HANAUSEK,  T.   F.:    Kunstliche    Kaffeebohnen.     Ztschn    Nahr.-Unters.    Hyg.    1889, 

3,3- 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Die  Entwicklungsgeschichte  der  Frucht  und  des  Samens  von Coffea, 

arabica.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1890,  4,  237,  257.     1891,  5,  185,  218.     1893, 

7,  85,  195. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Zum  Bau  der  Kaffeebohnen.     66.  Vers.  deutsch,  Naturf.  u.  Aerzte. 

Wien,   1894. 

JAMES:  Le  cafe  torrifie,  engrains,  factice.     Revue  d'hyg.  1890,  No.  12. 
KONIG:  Kunstkaffee.     Chem.  Centralbl.  1889,.  20,  i,  51. 
KONIG:    Die  Friichte  der  Wachspalme  als  Kaffeesurrogate.     Centr.-Org.  f.  Waarenk. 

u.  Techn.  1891,  1,  i. 
KORNAUTH:    Communications   di verses    concernant   les   denrees   alimentaires  et  les 

boissons.     Rev.  internat.  falsificat.  1889-90.  3,  195. 
KORNAUTH:    Beitrage  zur  chemischen  und  mikroskopischen  Untersuchung  des  Kaffees 

und  der   Kaffeesurrogate.      Hilger,   Mitth.   Lab.   angew.   Chem.   Erlangen,   III 

Heft.  Miinchen,  1890,  i. 
KORNAUTH:    Zur  Beurtheilungen  der  Kaffeesurrogate     Ztschr.  angew.   Chem.   1891, 

645- 

MANSFELD:  Bericht  iiber  die  Thatigkeit  der  Untersuchungsanstalt  des  Allgemeinen  oster- 
reichischen  Apothekervereines  und  des  Wiener  Apotheker-Hauptgremiums.  Ztschr. 
Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1896,  10,  336. 

MANSFELD:    Kaffeesurrogate.     Jahresber.  Unters.  allg.  osterr.  Apoth.-Ver.   1901,   10. 

MOELLER:  Ueber  Mogdad-Kaffee.  Pharm.  Centralh.  22,  133.  Dingler's  Polytechn. 
Jour.  1880,  237,  61. 

MORPURGO:  Eine  einfache  Methode  zur  Entdeckung  kiinstlicher  Farbungen  der  Kaffee- 
bohnen. Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1898,  6,  9. 

NEVINNY:  Die  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel  Wiens.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg   1887, 

1,    21. 

NEVINNY:    Zur  Verfalschung  des  Feigenkaffees.     Ztschr.   Nahr.-Unters.   Hyg.    1887, 

1,85. 

FADE:   Neue  Falschungen  des  Kaffees.     Chem.  Centralbl.  1889,  20,  2. 
PORTELE:   Kunstliche  Kaffeebohnen.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters  Hyg.  1889,  3,  221. 
RAUMER:  Ein  neues  Kaffeesurrogate.     Forschber.  Lebensm.  Hyg.  1894,  1,  293 
RAUMER:    Ueber  den  Nachweis  kunstlicher  Farbungen  bei  Rohkaffee.     Forschber.' 

Lebensm.  Hyg,  1896,  3,  333. 
REUTER:    Beitrag  zur  Kenntniss   der   Bestandtheile   des   Mogdad-Kaffees.     Pharm. 

Centralh.  1889,  30,  494. 
ROHRIG:    Afrikanischer  Nussbohnenkaffee.     Forschber.  Lebensm.  Hyg.  1895,  2,  15. 


438  ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 

RUFFIN;   Fabrikation,  Veranderungen  und  Falschungen   der  Cichorien.    Ann.  chim. 

anal.  1898,  3,  114. 

SAMELSON:    Ueber  Kunstkaffee.     Ztschr.  angew.  Chem.  1890,  482. 
STREET:    Coffee  Hulls.     New  Jersey  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.     Bull.  160,  1902. 
STUTZER:   Ueber  Kunstkaffee.     Ztschr.  angew.  Chem.  1888,  1,  699.     1890,  549. 
TRILLICH:  Ueber  Malzkaffee  und  Kaffeesurrogate.     Ztschr.  angew.  Chem.  1891,  540. 
TRILLICH:   Kaffee  und  Kaffeesurrogate.     Ztschr.  angew.  Chem.  1896,  440. 
TRILLICH:  Ueber  Kaffee  mit  thranenformigen  Eohnen.    Ztschr.  offentl.  Chem.  1898, 

542: 

WAAGE:   Ueber  kunstliche  Kaffeebohnen.    Apoth.-Ztg.  1890,  5,  219. 
WOLFFENSTEIN:  Untersuchung  einiger  Kaffeepraparate.    Ztschr.  angew.  Chem.  1890, 

84. 

LIBERIAN  COFFEE. 

Liberian  coffee  (Coffea  Liberica  Bull.)  is  found  wild  and  cultivated  in 
Liberia  and  the  whole  of  the  Guinea  coast.  The  limited  product  is 
exported  chiefly  to  England  and  the  Continent. 

The  fruit  is  extremely  large,  averaging  i  to  i  J  inches  in  length,  ellip- 
soidal, and  pointed  at  both  ends.  Compared  with  C.  Arabica  the  pulp 
is  thicker,  the  parchment  hard  and  brittle,  never  clear,  and  the  spermo- 
derm  or  silver  skin  stronger,  tougher  and  more  tightly  rolled  into  the 
deep,  narrow  furrow.  The  bean  also  is  unusually  large,  peculiar  in 
form,  dark  brown  in  color,  and  heavy  in  weight.  Although  coarser 
flavored,  owing  to  its  strength  it  is  well  adapted  for  admixture  with  better 
sorts. 

Hartwich  notes  that  the  embryo  of  C.  Liberica  is  7.5  mm.  long,  that 
of  C.  Arabica  only  4  mm.;  also  that  the  stone  cells  of  the  spermoderm 
are  880  //  long  and  51  p.  broad  in  the  former,  while  they  are  but  484  ^ 
long  and  4.1/1.  broad  in  the  latter  species. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
HARTWICH:  Coffea  liberica.    Schw.  Woch.  Chem.  Pharm.  1896,  34,  473. 

CHICORY. 

The  oldest  and  commonest  substitute  for  coffee  is  the  root  of  chicory 
(Chicorium  Intybus  L.,  order  Composite))  a  native  of  Europe,  where 
it  is  also  extensively  cultivated.  The  tap  root  is  spindle-shaped,  sparingly 
branched,  while  fresh,  fleshy  with  a  milky  juice,  after  drying,  shriveled, 
hard,  horny,  on  the  outer  surface  brown,  and  often  spirally  wrinkled. 


CHICORY.  439 

Cross  sections  examined  under  a  lens  show  the  radiating  phloem  groups, 
the  xylem  elements  with  broad  lumens,  and  the  narrow  radiating  medul- 
lary rays. 

The  reserve  material  is  largely  in  the  form  of  inulin. 

HISTOLOGY. 

1.  The  Cork  (Fig.  340)  tissue  consists  of  a  few  layers  of  rather  flat 
cells,  with  thin  brown  walls.      In  surface  view  they  are  often  ill-defined. 

2.  Cortex  (Fig.   341).     The  parenchymatous  ground  tissue  contains 
numerous  branching  and  anastomosing  latex  tubes 

(sch)  6-10  fj.  broad,  with  granular  contents,  which 
are  especially  conspicuous  after  staining.  Inulin 
occurs  in  the  parenchyma,  but  being  soluble  in 
water,  is  evident  only  in  mounts  of  alcohol  material, 
in  which  it  forms  sphaero-crystals. 

3.  Bast  (Fig.  341).    The  sieve  tubes  (s)  are  dis- 
tinguished from   the    latex  tubes   by   their   occur- 
rence in  bundles,  the  absence  of  branches,  and  the 

.  FIG.  340.     Chicory  (Chi- 

callus  of  the  sieve  plates.  Neither  the  cortex  nor  corium  intybus).  Cork 
the  bast  contains  any  sclerenchyma  elements  what-  £scseue  °^e™ot  ^JSf 
ever.  (MOELLER.) 

4.  Wood  (Fig.   342).     The  most   conspicuous   elements   of  the  root 
are  the  vessels  (g)  made  up  of  short  (usually  less  than  200  /*),  moderately 
broad  (usually  20-50  /*)  members,  with  diagonal,  porous  or  non-porous 
cross  walls.     The  side  walls  are  characterized  by  numerous  moderately 
elongated  transverse  pores.     Usually  the  vessels  are  in  radial  rows  or 
in  groups,  seldom  isolated.     Fuchsin  stains  them  an  intense  red. 

Of  less  diagnostic  value  are  the  thickly  porous  parenchyma  cells  and 
the  rather  thin- walled  wood  fibers  (/),  with  diagonal  clefts.  The  narrow 
medullary  rays  consist  of  one  or  two  (rarely  three)  rows  of  cells. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Chicory  as  used  in  coffee  is  in  irregular,  soft,  deep  brown  grains, 
with  a  sweetish  taste.  It  sinks  in  water,  imparting  to  it  a  yellow-brown 
coloration.  The  important  elements  are  the  vessels  (Fig.  342,  g)  consisting 
of  short  joints,  with  moderately  elongated,  transversely  arranged  pores, 
and  the  branching  latex  tubes  (Fig.  341,  sch)  with  granular  contents.  In 
some  fragments  one  finds  numerous  vessels,  in  others  numerous  latex  tubes 
in  a  mass  of  brown  parenchyma. 


440 


ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 


Common  adulterants  are  the  roots  of  dandelion,  carrot,  beet, 
turnip,  as  well  as  cereal  matter.     Dandelion  (p.  441)  and  carrot  (p.  418) 
are  distinguished  by  the  elongated  narrow  pores  of  the  vessels.     The 


sch 


FIG.  341.  Chicory.  Bark  of  root  in  radial 
section,  rp  cortex  parenchyma;  sch  latex 
tubes;  5  sieve  tube;  bp  bast  parenchyma; 
m  medullary  rays.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 


FlG.  342.  Chicory.  Wood  of  root  in 
tangential  section,  g  pitted  vessels 
with  qu  perforation;  kp  wood  pa- 
renchyma; Zwood  fibers;  m  medul- 
lary ray.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 


former  root,  like  chicory,  contains  latex  tubes.  The  vessels  of  the  white 
turnip  (p.  419)  have  pores  similar  to  those  of  chicory;  latex  tubes,  how- 
ever, are  lacking.  Unusually  broad  meshes  characterize  the  vessels  of 
the  beet  (p.  417). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Greenish  (14);  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (10,  16); 
Hassall  (19);  Leach  (25);  Mace  (26);  Moeller  (29) ;  Planchon  et  Collin  (34) ;  Tschirch 
u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (14,  45). 

See  also  Bibliography  of  Coffee,  pp.  436-438. 


DANDELION. 

The  root  of  the  common  dandelion  (Leontodon  Taraxacum  L.,  order 
Composites)  is  often  mixed  with  chicory.  It  is  thicker  and  more  branched 
than  the  latter,  and  has  a  more  even  fracture.  The  bark  is  white,  with 
delicate  concentric  rings;  the  wood  yellow,  without  rays. 


DANDELION. 


441 


HISTOLOGY. 

The  bark  elements  (Fig.  343)  are  practically  the  same  as  those  of 
chicory.     The  concentric  rings  are  only  evident  in  cross  section. 

More  characteristic  is  the  structure 
of  the  wood  (Fig.  344).  The  vessels 
(g)  are  irregularly  distributed,  not  sep- 
arated by  the  medullary  rays  into  distinct 
groups.  They  are  somewhat  broader 
(up  to  80  fjL)  than  those  of  chicory,  and 
have  much  longer  pores,  resembling  those 
of  scalariform  vessels.  Less  noteworthy 
is  the  absence  of  wood  fibers,  as  these 


FIG.  343.  Dandelion  (Leontodon 
Taraxacum).  Bark  of  root  in  longi- 
tudinal section  showing  latex  tubes. 

(TSCHIRCH.) 


FIG.  344.  Dandelion.  Wood  of  root  in  longi- 
tudinal section,  g  reticulated  vessels  with  qu 
perforation;  hp  wood  parenchyma;  m  medul- 
lary ray.  X 160.  (MOELLER.) 


are   not  easily  found  in  chicory.     The  reserve  material  exists  largely  as 
inulin,  which  in  alcohol  material  forms  sphaero-crystals. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  greater  length  of  the  pores  in  the  vessels  (Fig.  344  g)  serves  to 
distinguish  this  root  from  chicory.  Latex  tubes  (Fig.  343)  are  present  in 
both  roots. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Moeller  (29,  32);  Planchonet  Colling); 
Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Vogl  (44,  45). 


442  ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 

COCOA   BEAN. 

Chocolate  and  Cocoa  are  products  of  the  "beans"  or  seeds  of  several 
small  trees,  natives  of  tropical  America,  of  which  Theobroma  Cacao  L. 
(order  Sterculiacea)  is  by  far  the  most  important.  The  value  of  cocoa 
beans  was  known  to  the  aborigines,  especially  the  Aztecs  of  Mexico  and 
Peru,  who  prepared  from  them  beverages  and  foods.  They  were  brought 
to  the  notice  of  Europeans  by  Cortez  and  other  explorers,  but  were  not 
extensively  imported  into  Europe  until  the  seventeenth  century,  about 
the  time  tea  and  coffee  were  introduced  from  the  East.  Theobroma 
(food  of  the  Gods),  the  generic  name  assigned  by  Linnaeus,  suggests  the 
high  esteem  with  which  people  in  his  day  regarded  the  seed.  At  present 
the  world's  supply  comes  chiefly  from  Venezuela,  Guiana,  Ecuador, 
Brazil,  Trinidad,  Cuba,  Mexico,  and  other  regions  bordering  on  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  being  gathered  in  these  regions  from  both  wild  and 
cultivated  trees,  and  also  to  some  extent  from  Java,  Ceylon,  Africa  and 
other  parts  of  the  Old  World,  where  the  tree  has  been  successfully  culti- 
vated. Cocoa  trees  with  their  large  dark-green  leaves  and  clusters  of 
fragrant  red  blossoms  are  among  the  most  beautiful  objects  of  the 
Tropics,  and  the  fruit,  borne  on  the  trunk  and  old  wood  of  the  tree,  is  a 
never  ending  source  of  wonder  to  travelers. 

The  yellow  or  brown  cocoa  fruit  is  from  12-18  cm.  long,  from  5-9 
cm.  wide,  and  has  10  ridges  passing  from  the  base  to  the  apex,  giving 
the  surface  a  melon-like  appearance  (Fig.  345,  /  and  II).  It  contains 
from  35  to  75  seeds  in  5  rows,  embedded  in  a  mucilaginous  substance. 

The  seeds  after  being  removed  from  the  fruit  are  dried  at  once  in 
some  localities,  but  the  better  grades  are  first  subjected  to  a  fermenta- 
tion process,  which  destroys  certain  bitter  and  acrid  constituents. 

Cocoa  beans  (Fig.  345?  III-VI)  as  found  on  the  market  consist  of  the 
anatropous  seeds,  often  with  more  or  less  of  the  pulpy  inner  pericarp 
adhering.  They  are  irregularly  ellipsoidal,  15-30  mm.  long,  somewhat 
flattened,  and  vary  from  reddish  brown  to  dark  brown  in  color.  The 
hilum  at  the  broader  end  and  the  chalaza  at  the  narrower  end  are  con- 
nected by  the  raphe,  which  runs  along  one  of  the  narrow  sides  and  divides 
into  numerous  branches  at  the  chalaza.  The  so-called  "shell,"  consist- 
ing of  spermoderm  with  portions  of  the  inner  pericarp  adhering  to  the 
outer  surface  and  the  perisperm  to  the  inner  surface,  is  thin  and  brittle, 
readily  breaking  away  from  the  cotyledons.  There  is  no  endosperm, 
the  reserve  material  being  entirely  in  the  chocolate-colored  embryo  con- 


COCOA  BEAN. 


443 


sisting  of  two  thick  and  curiously  folded  cotyledons  and  a  hard  radicle 
about  one-third  the  length  of  the  seed  situated  at  the  hilum  end.  On 
crushing  the  seed  the  radicle  separates  and  the  cotyledons  break  into 


FIG.  345.  Cocoa  (Theobroma  Cacao}.  I  entire  fruit,  Xi;  77  fruit  in  cross  section.  777 
seed  (cocoa  bean),  natural  size;  IV  seed  deprived  of  sperm oderm;  V  seed  in  longitu- 
dinal section,  showing  radicle  (germ) ;  VI  seed  in  cross  section.  (WiNTON.) 

angular  pieces  known  as  cocoa  nibs,  from  which  are  prepared  the  choco- 
late and  cocoa  of  commerce. 

Over  50  per  cent  of  the  dry  embryo  consists  of  fat,  the  remaining 
constituents  being  starch,  proteids,  theobromin,  caffein,  a  tannin  sub- 
stance known  as  cocoa  red,  and  other  substances  in  smaller  amount. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Cocoa  beans,  'obtainable  from  any  manufacturer  of  cocoa  products, 
are  suitable  for  microscopic  study.  Transverse  sections  are  conveniently 
cut  dry,  depending  on  subsequent  treatment  with  reagents  to  swell  out 
the  tissues.  If  sections  of  the  shell  are  soaked  for  a  few  minutes  in 
Javelle  water,  the  collapsed  cells,  particularly  those  of  the  endocarp  and 
the  outer  epidermis  of  the  spermoderm,  assume  their  normal  form  and  the 
tissues,  after  washing  in  dilute  acetic  acid,  are  suitably  cleared  for  stain- 
ing with  safranin  or  some  other  dye.  Sections  of  the  cotyledons  are  first 
freed  from  fat  by  a  suitable  solvent  and  afterwards  mounted  either  in 
glycerine  or  water. 

Pericarp.  Adhering  to  the  surface  of  most  grades  of  beans  is  a  thin 
coat  consisting  of  the  cells  of  the  inner  layers  of  the  mesocarp  or  fruit 
pulp  and  the  endocarp. 


444 


ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 


1.  Mesocarp  (Fig.  346,  mes).     The  cells  are  elongated,  often  branching, 
with  large  intercellular  spaces.     On  soaking  in  water  they  become  slimy 
and,  together  with  the  endocarp,  separate  easily  from  the  spermoderm. 

2.  The  Endocarp  (Figs.  346  and  347,  end}  is  made  up  of  narrow  elon- 
gated cells  running  transversely  or  diagonally  about  the  seed  and  forming 
the  so-called  cross-cell  layer.     These  cells  are  about  15  /*  wide  and  often 
reach  a  length  of  200-300  /*. 

Spermoderm.     i.  The  Outer  Epidermis  (Figs.  346  and  347,  ep),  con- 
sisting of  longitudinally  elongated,  polygonal  cells  (30-50  /*  broad  and 


FIG.  346.  Cocoa.  Cross  section  of  outer  portion  of  bean,  mes  inner  layers  of  mesocarp; 
end  endocarp;  spermoderm  consists  of  ep  outer  epidermis,  muc  mucilage  cells,  p  spongy 
parenchyma,  st  stone  cells  and  Ip  nutritive  layer;  N  perisperm  consists  of  epidermal 
and  obliterated  layers;  C  cotyledon.  (TSCHIRCH.) 

up  to  200  jj.  long),  is  clearly  seen  in  surface  preparations,  underlying 
the  cross  cells  of  the  endocarp.  Owing  to  their  collapsed  condition,  this 
layer  is  not  distinct  in  sections  mounted  in  water,  but  on  treatment  with 
Javelle  water,  the  cells  swell  to  their  natural  size  and  the  thick  cuticle 
becomes  evident. 


COCOA  BEAN. 


445 


2.  Mucilage  Cells   (Fig.   346,  muc]   underlie  the  epidermis,  forming 
what  at  first  sight  appears  to  be  a  broad  hyaline  coat.     They  do  not, 
however,  form  a  continuous  coat,  but  a  series  of  pockets  separated  by 
tissues  of  the  third  layer.     Safranin  stains  the  layer  in  cross  section  a 
clear  rose  color  and  makes  the  radial  walls  more  distinct. 

3.  Spongy    Parenchyma    (p).      Numerous    layers    of    spongy   paren- 
chyma cells,  through  which  pass  the  bundles  of  the  raphe  and  its  branches, 
form   the   third   coat.     Narrow   spiral   vessels   readily   separating   from 
the  other  elements,  characterize  the  bundles. 

4.  Stone  Cells  (Fig.  346,  st\  Fig.  349,  d).     The  cells  of  the  next  layer 
are  thickened  on  the  inner  and  radial  walls.     In  surface  view  they  are 
polygonal,  often  elongated,  varying  up  to  25  /*  long.     The  double  walls 
are  about  5  /*  thick.     Here  and  there  groups  of  these  cells  are  not  thick- 


FlG.  347.     Cocoa.     Outer    elements    of    shell.  FIG.   348.     Cocoa.    Cross  section  of  outer 

ep  epidermis  of  spermoderm;    end    endocarp  portion    of    cotyledon,     showing    hairs 

(cross   cells);   p    parenchyma    of    mesocarp.  (Mitscherlichian     bodies)     and    starch 

Xi6o.     (MOELLER.)  parenchyma.     (MOELLER.) 

ened  at  all,  permitting,  according  to  Tschirch  and  Oesterle,  an  exchange 
of  cell  liquids. 

5.  Nutritive  Layer  (Fig.  346,  Ip).  Several  rows  of  cells  of  this  layer 
contain  in  earlier  stages  of  development  cell-contents  which  later  are 
employed  in  building  up  the  seed,  leaving  at  maturity  only  obliterated 
tissues. 


446  ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 

6.   The  Inner  Epidermis  is  indistinct. 

Perisperm.  (Fig.  346,  N).  The  "silver"  coat,  formerly  regarded 
as  endosperm  but  later  shown  by  Tschirch  and  Oesterle  to  be  perisperm, 
envelops  the  seed  and  penetrates  between  the  folds  of  the  cotyledons. 

1.  Epidermis   A  single  layer  of  polygonal  cells  (15-30  /*)  with  distinct 
walls  (double  walls  3  /*)  forms  a  coat  similar  to  the  aleurone  cells  of 
many  seeds.      The   cell   contents   are  yellow   or   white   and   consist  of 
fatty  matter  in  aggregates,  and  protein.     This  layer  does  not  penetrate 
between  the  cotyledons. 

2.  Obliterated  Cells  comprise  the  remainder  of  the  perisperm.     They 
contain  fat  in  numerous  large  blade-shaped  crystals,  often  in  fan-like 
clusters,  and  also  dense  sphero-aggregates. 

Embryo.  The  bulk  of  the  seed  consists  of  the  fleshy  cotyledons  con- 
taining over  half  their  dry  weight  of  fat. 

1.  The  Epidermis  (Figs.  348  and  349)  is  made  up  of  polygonal  cells 
and  remarkable  several-celled  hairs  (tr)  named  in  honor  of  their  discoverer 
" Mitscherlichian  bodies."     These  latter  consist  of  a  single  row  of  cells 
near  the  base,  but  expand  at  the  outer  end  into  a  club-shaped  body  often 
several  cells  broad.     Vogl  has  rightly  observed  that  these  hairs  occur  less 
often  on  the  surface  of  the  cotyledon  adjoining  the  perisperm  than  in 
the  folds,  and  Tschirch  and  Oesterle,  that  they  are  still  more  abundant 
on  the   radicle.     The  perisperm,   particularly  that   portion   within  the 
folds  of  the  cotyledons,  often  has  these  hairs  adhering  to  its  inner  surface. 
Both  the  hairs  and  the  other  epidermal  cells  contain  small  brown  bodies, 
which,  according  to  Vogl,  are  colored  blood-red  by  chloral,  olive-brown 
by  ferric  chloride,  and  bright  yellow  by  ammonia,  the  latter  reagent  also 
causing  the  grains  to  swell.     These  reactions  are  not  always  decisive. 

2.  Ground  Tissue  (Fig.  348).     The  cells  in  the  interior  of  the  cotyle- 
dons either  contain  starch  and  aleurone  grains  embedded  in  fat,  or  a 
pigment  varying  from  violet  to  brown  in  color.     Plat,  the  chief  constituent 
of  the  embryo,  occurs  either  in  rosettes  of  needle-shaped  crystals  or  in 
compact  masses.     Starch  is  present  in  amounts  varying  up  to   10  per 
cent,  the  rounded  grains  (4-12  ,«),  each  with  a  distinct  hilum,  resembling 
closely  those  of  allspice  and  cinnamon.     The  grains  occur  singly,  in 
pairs,  or  in  triplets.     They  stain  slowly  with  iodine,  even  after  the  re- 
moval of  the  fat.     The   aleurone  grains  are  usually  smaller  than  the 
starch  grains  and  contain  several  globoids,  but  larger  grains  with  crystal- 
loids are  also  found  here  and  there.     Both  the  starch  and  aleurone  grains, 
the  latter  being  the  less  abundant,  are  clearly  differentiated  by  extracting 


COCOA  BEAU. 


447 


sections  with  ether  and  mounting  in  chlorzinc  iodine.  Scattered  among 
these  cells  are  the  pigment  cells  containing  a  substance  varying  from 
violet  to  brown  in  color  known  as  cocoa  red,  which,  together  with  theo- 
bromin,  caffein  and  dextrose,  is  formed  by  the  action  of  an  enzyme 
on  a  glucoside  originally  present  in  the  bean.  Usually  this  substance 
becomes  blood-red  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  gray-blue  with 
ammonia,  greenish -yellow  with  caustic  soda,  and  olive  with  ferric  chloride, 
although  the  color  reactions  vary  greatly  in  different  samples,  owing 

A  B 


FIG.  349.  Cocoa.  A  perisperm  (silver  coat)  consisting  of  epidermis  and  parenchyma: 
K  and  /  crystals;  tr  adhering  hairs  (Mitscherlichian  bodies)  from  epidermis  of  cotyledon. 
B  elements  of  cocoa  powder,  showing  c  cotyledon  tissues  with  fat  cells  and  pigment 
cells,  also  p  parenchyma,  sp  spiral  vessels  and  d  stone  cell  layer  of  shell  (spermoderm). 
X  1 60.  (MOELLER.) 

possibly  to  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  process  of  fermentation,  roasting, 
etc.  Tschirch  and  Oesterle  describe  methods  for  separating  theobromin 
gold  chloride  and  theobromin  silver  nitrate,  but  these,  although  of 
scientific  interest,  are  of  little  value  in  diagnosis.  Caffein  also  occurs  in 
small  amounts  in  the  embryo,  but  its  presence  is  best  demonstrated  by 
purely  chemical  means. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Plain  Chocolate.  The  first  stages  in  the  manufacture  of  both  choco- 
late and  cocoa  are  the  same. 

After  removing  stones,  chips  and  other  impurities,  the  beans  are 
roasted,  thus  developing  a  desirable  flavor  and  facilitating  the  processes 


ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 

of  separation  from  the  shells  and  grinding.  The  beans  are  then  crushed 
by  machinery  and  separated  from  the  shells.  In  some  factories  the  hard 
"germs"  (radicles)  are  also  removed. 

The  broken  cotyledons,  free  from  shells,  known  as  "cocoa  nibs," 
are  next  ground  in  the  chocolate  mill.  The  heat  of  grinding  melts  the 
fat  which  makes  up  about  half  the  weight  of  the  nibs,  and  the  ground 
product  runs  out  of  the  mill  as  a  thin  paste.  This  paste,  after  cooling 
in  moulds,  is  plain  or  unsweetened  chocolate,  also  known  as  cocoa  mass. 

The  most  characteristic  tissues  of  the  embryo  are  the  multi -cellular 
bodies  of  the  epidermis  (Fig.  349),  but  these  are  not  numerous  and  are 
largely  destroyed  in  grinding.  Of  chief  value  in  identification  are  the  starch 
grains  (Fig.  348),  which,  although  much  like  the  grains  of  allspice  and  cin- 
namon, do  not  resemble  those  of  any  common  adulterant.  The  violet  or 
brown  contents  of  the  pigment  cells  are  also  of  some  diagnostic  impor- 
tance, though  the  reactions  are  often  misleading.  Tissues  of  the  spermo- 
derm  (Fig.  347)  are  exceedingly  rare  in  cocoa  products  made  from  care- 
fully shelled  beans.  Among  the  adulterants  with  definite  microscopic 
characters  found  in  plain  chocolate  are  wheat  flour,  maize  starch,  peanut 
meal,  peas,  acorns,  arrowroot,  and  cocoa  shells.  Other  adulterants 
which  can  be  identified  only  by  chemical  and  physical  methods  are 
foreign  fats,  mineral  make-weights,  iron  salts,  various  pigments,  and 
coal-tar  dyes. 

Sweet  Chocolate  is  prepared  by  mixing  pulverized  sugar  and  flavors 
with  the  warm  chocolate  paste  before  moulding.  Vanilla  beans  (or 
artificial  vanillin)  and  cinnamon  are  most  commonly  employed  as  flavor- 
ing materials,  less  often  cloves,  nutmegs,  mace,  cardamoms,  and  Peru 
balsam.  The  adulterants  are  those  noted  under  plain  chocolate. 

Cocoa  is  obtained  by  removing  a  portion  of  the  fat  (cocoa  butter), 
from  warm  cocoa  mass  by  pressure  and  reducing  the  residue  to  a  powder, 
with  or  without  addition  of  vanilla  flavor. 

Dutch  Process,  or  "Soluble"  Cocoa,  is  cocoa  treated  with  an  alkali, 
usually  soda  or  ammonia,  to  hinder  the  fat  from  collecting  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  beverage  prepared  from  it.  The  microscopic  elements  are 
not  altered  by  this  treatment.  Various  starchy  preparations  and  oil- 
seed products  such  as  are  noted  under  chocolate  are  used  as  adulterants. 

Cocoa  Shells,  obtained  in  large  quantities  in  the  manufacture  of 
chocolate  and  cocoa,  are  used  to  some  extent  in  the  preparation  of  a 
beverage,  for  the  manufacture  of  theobromin,  and  in  mixed  cattle  foods, 
but  are  most  commonly  added  to  cocoa  products  or  spices  as  an  adulterant. 


COCOA  BEAN, 


449 


The  striking  histological  elements  are  the  cross  cells  or  inner  epider- 
mis (Fig,  347,  end)  of  the  pericarp,  and  the  underlying  tissues  of  the 
spermoderm,  especially  the  outer  epidermis  (ep),  the  numerous  narrow 
spiral  vessels  of  the  bundles,  and  the  stone  cells.  The  shells  contain  a 
higher  percentage  of  crude  fiber  than  the  cotyledons,  but  much  less  fat, 
starch,  and  theobromin. 

Compound  Cocoa  Products.  Zipperer  gives  formulas  or  analyses  of 
seventy-four  preparations  of  chocolate  or  cocoa  with  other  materials. 
He  states,  however,  that  this  list  is  not  complete  and  does  not  contain 
any  of  the  medicinal  chocolates.  Some  of  the  ingredients  named  are 
oatmeal,  barley  meal,  malt,  malt  extract,  wheat  flour,  potato  flour,  rice 
peas,  peanuts,  acorns,  cola  nuts,  sago,  arrowroot,  Iceland  moss,  gum 
Arabic,  salep,  dried  meat,  meat  extract,  peptones,  milk  powder,  plas- 
mon  (casein),  eggs,  saccharin,  vanilla,  various  spices,  and  inorganic 
salts.  Of  the  products  named,  only  those  of  vegetable  origin  can  usually 
be  identified  under  the  microscope. 

Malt  Chocolate  and  Malt  Cocoa  more  often  contain  malt  extract  than 
ground  malt,  only  the  latter  being  distinguishable  under  the  microscope. 

Milk  Chocolate,  a  popular  mixture  of  sweet  chocolate  and  milk  powder, 
has  no  distinctive  microscopic  characters  but  "Plasmon  Chocolate," 
"Plasmon  Cocoa"  and  various  similar  preparations  show  under  the 
microscope  flakes  of  ceasin  (Plasmon),  which  may  be  tested  with  reagents 
and  dyes. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See   General  Bibliography,   pp.  671-674:     Blyth   (5);    Flikkiger  (n);    Greenish 
(14);   Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16,  48);   Hassall  (19);   Leach  (25);  Mace   (26);   Meyer,  A. 
(28);   Moeller  (29,  30,  31,  32);    Planchon  et  Collin  (34);    Schimper  (37);    Tschirch 
u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (43,  45);  Weigmann  (10). 
BASTINGS:    Starch  Grains  in   the  Different  Commercial  Varieties   of   Cocoa  Beans. 

Amer.  Journ.  Pharm.  1894,  66,  369. 
BECKURTS  und  HARTWICH:  Beitriige  zur  chemischen  und  pharmakognostischen  Kent- 

niss  der  Cacaobohnen.     Arch.  Pharm.  1890,  230,  589. 
BERNHARD:  Ueber  Cacao  und  dessen  Praparate.     Chem.  Ztg.  1888,  12,  445.     1889, 

13,  32. 
BERNHARD:  Ueber  die  Untersuchung  von  Cacao  und  Chocolade.     Vers.  Schw.  Chem. 

12.  April,  1890. 

BEYTHIEN:    Casseler  Haferkakao.     Jahresber.  chem.  Unters.-Amt  Dresden,  1900,  10. 
BEYTHIEN  und  HEMPEL:  Chokoladenmehle.     Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm.  1901 

4,23. 
COSTER,  HOORN  und  MAZURE:   Falsifications  observees  en  Holland.    Rev.  internat. 

falsificat.  1887-88,  1,  161. 


45°  ALKALOID AL  PRODUCTS. 

ELSNER:  Rep.  analyt.  Chem.  1884,  370;   1885,  5,  128,  211. 

FILSINGER:  Die  Untersuchung  der  Kakaofabrikate  auf  Gehalt  an  Kakaoschalen. 
Ztschr.  offentl.  Chem.  1899,  5,  27. 

FISCHER  und  GRUNHAGEN:  Untersuchung  des  Kakao  und  der  Chokolade  auf  Kakao- 
schalen. Jahresber.  chem.  Unters.-Amt.  Breslau,  1899-1900,  34. 

FISCHER:  Nachweis  von  Kakaoschalen.  Jahresber.  chem.  Unters-Amt.  Breslau, 
1901-02,  27. 

HAGER:  Ueber  Eichelkakao  und  Chokolade.     Pharm.  Ztg.  1888,  33,  511. 

HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Mikroskopische  Untersuchung  eines  hollandischen  Eichelcacaos. 
Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1887, 1,  247. 

HANAUSEK,   T.  F.:    Beitrage  zur  Histochemie  der  Cacaosamen.   Apoth.-Ztg.    1894, 

145- 

HARTWICH:   Ueber  die  Pigmentzellen  des  Cacaosamens.  Arch.  Pharm.  1887,  25,  958. 
HARTWICH:  Zur  Nachweisung  fremder  Starkemehle  in  der  Chokolade.     Chem.  Ztg. 

1888,  12,  375. 

LAGERHEIM:  Nachweis  von  Kakaoschalen.     Svensk  Kemisk  Tidskrift,  1901. 
LAGERHEIM:  Om  den  mikroskopiska  undersokningen  af  kakao  och  chokolad.     Svensk 

Farmaceutisk  Tidskrift  1902,  No.  9. 

LEGLER:  Cellulosegehaltes  der  Kakaobohnen.     Rep.  analyt.  Chem.  1884,  4,  345. 
LEGLER:     Zur  mikroskopischen  Untersuchung  der  Cacaobohnen.     14-17  Jahresber. 

Chem.  Centralstelle.  Dresden,  1886-88. 
MANSFELD:  Kakao-Ersatzmittel.   Jahresber.  Unters.  allg.  osterr.  Apoth.-Ver.  1901-02, 

H  5 

MICHAELIS:   Eichelkakao,  Eichelchokolade.     Pharm.  Ztg.  1888,  33,  568. 
MITSCHERLICH:   Der  Cacao  und  Die  Chocolade.     Berlin,  1859. 
NOTHNAGEL:  Untersuchung  von  Getreide-Kakao.     Apoth.-Ztg.  1900,  15,  181. 
PAYEN:    Action  de  1'iode  sur  Tamidon  du  cacao.    Jour,  pharm.  chim.  1862,  41,  367. 
PENNETIER:    Recherche  de  la  farines  de  ble  dans  le  chocolat.     Jour,  pharm.  chim. 

1887,  15,   141. 
PFISTER:     Eine  neue  Chokoladenfalschung.     Forschber.  Lebensm.    Hyg.  Pharmkgn. 

1894,  1,  543. 

SPATH:   Verfalschung  von  Cacao.     Forschber.  Lebensm.  Hyg.  1894,  1,  344. 
THIEL:   Zur  Histologie  und  Physiologic  der  Kakaosamen.     Forschber.  Lebensm.  Hyg. 

1894,  1,  219. 
TICHOMIROW:    Ueber  die   Cacaocultur  auf  Ceylon.      Pharm.  Ztschr.  f.  Russl.  1892, 

31,  260. 

TROJANOWSKY:    Beitr.  z.  pharmakogn.  u.  chem.  Kenntniss  des  Cacaos.  Inaug.-Diss. 

Dorpat,  1875. 
TSCHIRCH:    Untersuchungen  der  Eichel-Cacaosorten  des  Handels.     Pharm.  Ztg.  1886, 

32,  190. 

TSCHIRCH:    Ueber  den  anatomischen  Bau  des  Cacaosamens.     Arch.  Pharm.  1887,  25, 

605. 
TSCHIRCH:    Entwicklungsgeschichtliche  Studien.     Schw.  Woch.  Chem.  Pharm.  1897, 

35,  No.  17. 
WELMANS:    Zur  Untersuchung  der  Kakaofabrikate  auf  ihren  Gehalt  an  Kakaoschalen. 

Ztschr.  offentl.  Chem.  1899,  5,  479. 


G  VARAN  A. 


451 


ZIPPERER:  Ueber  den  Werth  der  mikroskopischen  Untersuchung  bei  Bestimmung 
fremden  Starkemehls  in  Chokolade.  Chem.  Ztg.  1888,  12,  26. 

ZIPPERER:  Beitrage  zur  Mikrochemie  des  Thees  und  des  Cacao.  VII.  Vers.  d.  freien 
Vereinig.  bayr.  Chem.  Speyer,  1888. 


GUARANA. 

The  seed  of  Paullinia  sorbilis  Mart,  (order  Sapindacece),  like  coffee 
and  the  kola  nut,  contains  caffein,  and  is  used  in  Brazil  as  a  stimulant. 
The  dried  paste  in  the  form  of  dark  brown,  ^^"^^ 

sausage-like     cylinders,    is    used  in   medi-  ^  \ 

cine. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  epidermis  (Fig.  350)  of  the  spermo- 
derm  consists  of  characteristic  palisade  cells 


FIG.  350.  Guarana  {Paullinia  sorbihs). 
Palisade  epidermis  of  spermoderm 
in  surface  view.  (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  351.      Guarana.      Epidermis 
and    parenchyma    of   cotyledon. 

(MOELLER.) 


with  thick  walls.     The  embryo  (Fig.  351)  contains   small  starch  grains 
of  the  allspice  type. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

In  the  commercial  product  the  starch  grains  are  more  or  less  dis- 
torted, owing  to  the  heat  employed  in  drying.  Although .  made  from 
the  shelled  seeds,  fragments  of  the  palisade  cells  are  always  present. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:    Moeller  (32);  Vogl  (45). 


452  ALKALOID AL  PRODUCTS. 

KOLA  NUT. 

The  seeds  of  Cola  acuminata  R.  Br.  have  long  been  used  by  the  natives 
of  West  Africa  as  a  stimulant,  and  have  also  been  introduced  into  other 
countries  as  a  drug.  They  contain  both  caffein  and  theobromin.  The 
commercial  product  consists  of  the  dried  cotyledons,  which  resemble 
somewhat  those  of  a  Spanish  chestnut,  except  that  they  are  of  a  dark- 
brown  color. 

The  starch  grains  are  ovate  or  reniform,  up  to  30  ft  long,  and  have 
an  elongated  hilum.  They  are  quite  like  the  starch  grains  of  legumes. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Vogl  (45). 

TEA. 

Tea  is  the  leaf  of  a  shrub  (Camellia  Thea  Link,  order  Ternstmmiacea], 
which  since  time  immemorial  has  been  extensively  cultivated  in  China 
and  Japan,  also  more  recently  in  India  (Assam),  Ceylon,  and  Java.  Its 
culture  in  South  Carolina,  although  still  in  the  experimental  stage,  bids 
fair  to  become  an  important  industry. 

The  numerous  kinds  of  tea  owe  their  difference  in  excellence  and 
trade  value  to  differences  in  the  mother  plant  on  the  one  hand,  and  to 
the  degree  of  ripeness  and  method  of  preparation  on  the  other.  As 
a  rule  only  the  leaf  buds  and  the  youngest  leaves,  not  the  flowers,  are 
gathered.  What  are  known  in  commerce  as  "flowers"  are  the  gray, 
silky-hairy  leaf  buds. 

Black  and  green  tea  owe  their  peculiar  characters  to  the  method  of 
preparation.  In  the  first  the  chlorophyl  is  destroyed,  in  the  latter  more 
or  less  preserved. 

Brick  tea  consists  of  large  leaves  not  suitable  for  the  preparation  of 
black  and  green  tea,  ends  of  branches  and  other  refuse,  compressed  into 
blocks.  It  is  consumed  almost  entirely  by  the  Asiatic  nomads. 

In  China  tea  designed  for  export  is  often  perfumed  by  mixing  with 
it  fragrant  flowers  (of  Aurantiacece,  Osmanthus  jragrans,  Jasminum, 
Aglaja  odorata,  Gardenia  ftorida,  Chloranthus  inconspicuus),  which  are 
removed  after  they  have  wilted.  The  bottom  of  the  chest  is  sometimes 
covered  with  flowers. 

Tea  leaves  vary  more  than  is  commonly  stated.       They  are  narrow 


TEA. 


453 


or  half  as  broad  as  long,  pointed  or  nearly  spatulate,  serrate  or  nearly 
entire,  entirely  smooth  or  hairy  on  the  under  side,  more  or  less  leathery. 
Grown  to  full  maturity  they  often  reach  10  cm.,  rarely  15  cm.,  in  length, 
but  as  picked  for  the  market  they  range  from  the  length  of  the  little  finger 
down  to  the  tiny  leaves  of  the  buds. 

The  following  characters  are  common  to  all  tea  leaves:    the  firm, 
rather  thick  texture;  the  glossy  upper  surface;  the  short  stem  into  which 


FIG.  352.    Tea  (Camellia  Thea).     Leaf, 
natural  size.     (MOELLER.) 


lG.  353.  Tea.  Fragment  of  leaf  treated 
with  chloral  hydrate,  showing  tooth,  veins, 
crystal  rosettes,  and  stone  cells.  Somewhat 
enlarged.  (SCHIMPER.) 


the  base  of  the  leaf  tapers;  the  thick  margins,  rolled  a  little  towards 
the  inner  surface,  with  cartilaginous  teeth ;  the  veins  which  branch  from 
the  midrib  at  angles  usually  greater  than  45°,  and  at  some  distance  from 
the  margin  form  loops  uniting  adjoining  ribs  (Fig.  352).  The  teeth 
(Fig.  353)  on  the  margin  of  the  leaf  are  shrunken  multicellular  glands 
which  break  off  readily  from  old  leaves. 

Tea  fruit  (Fig.  354),  consisting  of  the  pericarp  with  calyx  and 
peduncle  attached,  resembles  cloves.  The  pericarp  is  globular  or  trian- 
gular, and  has  three  cells,  each  containing  a  single  seed. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Microscopic  mounts  are  prepared  after  soaking  or  boiling  with  water. 
The  Upper  Epidermis  (Fig.  355)  consists  of  small  (50  /*)  cells  with 
slightly  wavy  walls,  without  stomata  or  hairs. 


454 


ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 


Mesophyl  (Fig.  357).  The  chlorophyl  parenchyma  adjoining  the 
upper  epidermis  is  made  up  of  palisade  cells  which  in  surface  view  are 
circular  in  outline  (Fig.  355,  p)\  that  adjoining  the  lower  epidermis  is 


FIG.  354.     Tea  Fruit.     Natural  size.     (WiNxoN.) 


FIG.  355.  Tea.  Upper  epidermis 
of  leaf  and  p  group  of  palisade 
cells,  seen  from  below.  Xi6o. 

(MOELLER.) 


spongy,  with  large  star-shaped  branching  cells  (Fig.  356,  m).  Large 
colorless  stone  cells  or  idioblasts  (Fig.  357;  Fig.  358,  st)  which  are  the  most 
characteristic  elements  of  the  tea  leaf,  occur  here  and  there  in  young 
leaves  and  in  considerable  numbers  in  mature  leaves.  They  form  as  it 
were  braces  holding  apart  the  epidermal  layers.  They  are  extremely 


FIG.  356.    Tea.    Lower  epidermis  of  leaf  with  h  hair  and  sp  stoma,  and  m  spongy  parenchyma 
of  mesophyl,  seen  from  below.     X  160.     (MOELLER.) 

variable  in  form  and  size,  but  are  usually  elongated  (up  to  150  ft), 
broadened  at  the  ends,  and  have  simple  and  forked  branches.  The 
thickness  of  the  porous  walls  often  exceeds  the  breadth  of  the  cavity. 


TEA. 


455 


Crystal  rosettes  occur  in  considerable  numbers. 

The  Lower  Epidermis  (Fig.  356)  consists  of  large  (70  ft)  irregular 
cells  with  wavy  contour,  among  which  are  numerous  large  (40-60  /*) 
broadly  elliptical  stomata  surrounded  usually  by  3-4  accompanying  cells. 

The  hairs  found  on  this  epidermis,  like  the  idioblasts,  are  highly 
characteristic.  On  old  leaves  they  occur  sparingly  or  not  at  all,  and 
their  scars,  owing  to  the  growth  of  the  neighboring  cells,  are  also  seldom 


FIG.  357.     Tea.     Cross  section  of  leaf  showing  epidermal  cells,  palisade  cells,  nbro-vascular 
bundle,  spongy  parenchyma  with  crystal  rosettes,  and  large  stone  cell.     (MEZ.) 

evident.  On  young  leaves,  however,  they  form  a  dense  pubescence. 
They  are  unicellular,  thick- walled,  often  over  i  mm.  long,  and  are  usually 
geniculate  near  the  base,  thus  causing  them  to  lie  flat  on  the  surface  of 
the  leaf. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

After  heating  to  boiling  in  water  the  leaves  may  be  spread  out  and 
examined.  Even  quite  small  fragments  can  be  recognized  by  their  tex- 
ture, venation,  dentation  and  other  macroscopic  characters.  The  chief 
microscopic  elements  of  value  in  diagnosis  are  the  epidermal  cells,  the 
geniculate  hairs  and  the  idioblasts. 

Tea  Adulteration.  Gross  adulteration,  such  as  the  addition  of 
exhausted  leaves,  foreign  leaves  and  mineral  make-weights,  is  seldom 
practiced  at  the  present  time.  Low-grade  teas  often  contain  tea  stems, 


456 


ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 


and  sometimes  tea  fruit.     Facing,  although  objectionable,  is  not  usually 
regarded  as  an  adulteration.1 

Exhausted  Tea.  Leaves  which  have  been  used  once  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  beverage  are  said  to  be  collected  in  England,  Russia,  and 
China,  impregnated  with  catechu  or  caramel,  and  prepared  in  imitation 
of  genuine  tea.  This  worthless  product  has  the  same  microscopic 
appearance  as  genuine  tea,  but  can  often  be  detected  by  chemical  means, 


FlG.  358.  Tea.  Tissues  of  leaf  isolated  by  warming  in  alkali  and  squeezing  with  cover 
glass,  g  spiral  vessels  of  nerves;  p  chlorophyl  parenchyma;  st  stone  cells;  h  hairs. 
Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 

particularly  determinations  of  hot-water  extract,  tannin,  total  and  water- 
soluble  ash. 

Tea  Fruit.  Soltsien  has  reported  several  cases  of  adulteration  with 
the  dried  fruit.  Winton  found  in  a  sample  sold  in  Connecticut  11.5  per 
cent  of  this  adulterant. 

Tea  Stems.  Tea  often  contains  a  small  amount  of  stems  as  an  acci- 
dental impurity.  A  considerable  amount  indicates  adulteration. 

"Lie  Tea"  consists  of  tea  leaves  and  other  refuse  made  into  lumps 
with  starch-paste.  These  lumps  fall  apart  on  soaking  in  water. 

Mineral  Make-weights,  including  soapstone,  gypsum,  iron  dust,  and 
sand,  are  detected  by  chemical  analysis. 

Facing.  A  large  part  of  the  green  tea  and  much  of  the  black  tea  is 
"faced,"  or  coated,  to  impart  a  gloss  and  an  attractive  color.  Among 
the  materials  employed  in  facing  green  tea  are  Prussian  blue  (ferric  ferro- 

1  Except  for  facing,  the  tea  on  the  American  market  at  the  present  time  is  seldom  adul- 
terated (A.  L.  W.). 


TEA.  457 

cyanide),  indigo,  turmeric,  soapstone,  and  gypsum.  Black  tea  is  fre- 
quently coated  -with  plumbago. 

Leach  describes  simple  methods  for  detecting  several  of  these  materials 
by  microscopic  examination:  Plumbago  is  evident  by  its  bright  glossy 
appearance;  Prussian  blue,  by  the  transparent  light  blue,  and  indigo  by 
the  greenish-blue  particles.  The  color  of  Prussian  blue  is  discharged  by 
sodium  hydroxide,  while  that  of  indigo  is  not.  The  detached  particles 
of  coloring  matter  often  rise  to  the  surface  when  leaves  are  shaken  in 
hot  water,  and  may  be  floated  on  a  slide  for  microscopic  examination. 
Prussian  blue  may  be  chemically  detected  in  the  sediment  as  above 
obtained  by  dissolving  in  hot  alkali,  acidifying  with  hydrochloric  acid 
and  then  adding  ferric  chloride.  A  blue  color  is  indicative  of  the  ferric 
ferrocyanide. 

Foreign  Leaves,  widely  different  in  form  and  size  from  the  tea  leaf, 
can  be  used  as  adulterants  provided  they  are  not  too  hairy  or  too  strongly 
scented.  The  adulterator  selects  not  only  leaves  which  outwardly  resemble 
tea  leaves,  of  which  there  are  an  abundance,  but,  trusting  to  the  indif- 
ference of  the  consumer,  uses  leaves  of  the  oak,  poplar,  maple,  plane  tree, 
and  others,  which  do  not  have  the  slightest  resemblance  to  tea  leaves,  and 
which  the  layman,  if  he  would  take  the  trouble  to  spread  out  the  spent 
leaves,  would  at  once  either  identify,  or  at  least  recognize  as  foreign. 
Most  of  these  leaves  on  close  inspection  show  peculiarities  in  texture, 
venation,  dentation,  and  other  characters,  thus  rendering  microscopic 
examination  superfluous.  Only  in  cases  where  absolute  proof  is  required, 
especially  when  the  leaves  are  in  fragments,  is  it  necessary  to  resort 
to  microscopic  examination.  The  leaves  described  on  pp.  458-483  do  not 
include  all  that  may  be  used  as  adulterants  of  tea,  but  only  those  which 
resemble  tea  leaves  in  form  or  else  are  most  commonly  used  either  as 
adulterants  or  substitutes. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:   Bell  (i);   Berg  (3);   Blyth  (5);   Greenish 
(14);   Hanausek,  T.  F.  (10,  16);   Hassall  (19);  Leach  (25);  Mace  (26);  Moeller  (29, 
30,  31,  32);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Schimper  (37);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers 
et  Coffin  (42);  Vogl  (43,  45)- 
ANONYMOUS:    Teefalschung  in  Russland.      Schw.  Woch.  Chem.  Pharm.  1892,  142. 

Weidenroschenblatter  als  Tee.     Pharm.  Ztg.  Russland,  1875. 
BATALIN:  Ein  neues  Ersatzmittel  fur  Tee.     Indbltt.  1888,  25,  No.  14,  59. 
BORKOWSKI:  Du  faux  the  russe.     Rev.  int.  falsific.  1896,  9,  131. 
BRUNOTTE:  De  la  determination  histologique  des  falsifications  du  The*.   These  EC.  de 

Ph.  de  Nancy,  1883. 


458  ALKALOID AL  PRODUCTS. 

COLLIN:  Du  the  chinois  et  de  quelques-une  de  ses  succedanes.    Journ.  pharm.  chim. 

1900,  11,  15. 

DRAGENDORFF:  Falschungen  in  Russland.     P.  Tr.  (3),  1048. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Ueber  den  kaukasischen  Tee,  nebst  Beitragen  zur  vergleichenden 

Anatomic  der  Vacciniumblatter.     Chem.  Ztg.  1897,  21,  115. 
LORENZ:  Tee  aus  Blattern  der  kaukasischen  Preiselbeere.     Apoth.   Ztg.    1902,  16, 

694. 

LUBELSKI:  Ueber  Kultur  und  Falschungen  des  Tees.     Rep.  Fals.  intern.  3,  88. 
MEDHURST:   Consular  Report.    Drog.  Ztg.  5  u.  Jahresber.  Fortschr.  Pharm.  1879,  43. 
MEYER,  AD.:  Anat.  charakt.  off.  Blatter  u.  Krauter.     Halle,  1882. 
MOLISCH:   Histochemie.     Jena,  1891. 
NETOLITZKY:   Dikotyledonblatter.     Wien,  1905. 

RICHE  et  COLLIN:  Falsification  du  the  en  Chine.     Jour,  pharm.  chim.  1890,  21,  6. 
RICHE:  Gefalschter  Tee.     Chem.  Ztg.  1899, 13,  Rep.  19,  155. 
SOLTSIEN:  Verfalschung  des  Tees  mit  Teefruchten.    Pharm.  Ztg.  1894,  39,  347.    Ztschr 

offentl.  Chem.  1902,  8,  254. 

STACKMANN:   Kaukasischer  Tee  aus  Kutais.     Ztschr.  anal.  Chem.  1895,  34,  49. 
TICHOMIROW:    Zur  Frage  liber  die  Expertise  von  gefalschtem  und  gebrauchtem  Tee 

Pharm.  Ztschr.  f.  Russl.  1890,  29,  No.  29-40. 
WINTON:  The  Adulteration  of  Tea  with  Tea  Fruit.     Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Stat.  Rep.  1901, 

183. 

GROflWELL    LEAVES. 

The  leaves  of  gromwell  (Lithospermum  officinale  L.,  order  Bor- 
raginacece)  are  entire,  sessile,  up  to  8  cm.  long  and  scarcely  15  mm.  broad 
(Fig.  359).  The  veins  are  few,  form  sharp  angles  with 
the  midrib,  and  near  the  margins  anastomose,  forming 
flattened  loops.  The  leaves  have  rough  hairs  on  both 
sides  which  are  evident  on  passing  the  fingers  from  tip 
to  base,  and  are  seen  under  a  lens  to  spring  from  rounded 
humps. 

The  Epidermis  on  the  upper  side  (Fig.  360)  consists 
of  irregularly  polygonal  cells,  on  the  lower  side  (Fig. 
361)  of  thin- walled  cells  with  more  or  less  wavy  contour. 
The  stiff,  somewhat  curved,  sharp-pointed,  warty  hairs 
are  600  //  or  more  long,  and  are  often  40  JJL  broad  at  the 
base.     They  have  thickened  walls,  and  contain   cysto- 
liths  or  concretions  of    calcium   carbonate,  which   are 
FIG.  359.  Gromwell   especially  well  developed   in  the  retort-shaped  bases. 
^jicinaie}erm^™zi~    Cystolitns  are  also  present  in  the  cells   of  the  upper 
natural   size!    epidermis.     Small  stbmata,  30  /* long,  occur  in  the  upper 

(MOELLER.)  .      .  •, 

epidermis  in  great  numbers. 
Gromwell    leaves    prepared   like    black    tea    are    sold    unmixed    in 


WILLOW  HERB  LEAVES, 


459 


FIG.  360.     Gromwell.     Upper   epidermis  of       FIG.  361.  Gromwell.  Lower 
leaf.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.)  epidermis  of  leaf.     Xi6o. 

(MOELLER.) 

Bohemia,  and  a  similar  product,  containing  the  fruits  as  well 
as  the  leaves,  was  at  one  time  made  in  Styria.  The  chief 
characters  are  the  thin  texture  of  the  leaf  and  the  rough  hairs. 

WILLOW    HERB   LEAVES. 

The  narrow-leaved  willow  herb  (Epilobium  angusti- 
jolium  L.,  ChamcEnerium  angustijolium  Scop.,  order  Oeno- 
iherecR)  has  lanceolate,  sharp-pointed  leaves  which  are  sessile 
or  with  short  petioles,  entire  or  sparingly  toothed  (Fig.  362). 
The  numerous  veins  are  at  nearly  right  angles  to  the  mid- 
rib, and  anastomose  at  the  border  in  short  loops. 

Upper  Epidermis.  (Fig.  363.)  The  cells  are  about  50  ^ 
broad,  with  slightly  wavy,  thick,  here  and  there  knotty- 
thickened  walls.  Stomata  are  absent,  but  water  stomata 
occur  near  the  apex. 

Lower  Epidermis.  (Fig.  364.)  The  cells  have  thinner 
and  wavier  walls  than  those  of  the  upper  epidermis,  and 
are  covered  by  a  wrinkled  cuticle  with  a  finely  granular  de- 
posit of  wax.  The  numerous  stomata  are  about  30  jj.  long 
and  20  n  broad.  Under  each  tooth  is  a  water  stomata. 
Young  leaves  bear  along  the  veins  unicellular,  blunt,  thin-  FIG.  362.  Willow 
walled,  striated,  mostly  crooked  hairs  (Fig.  365).  Herb  (Epji^ 

The  Mesophyl  contains  numerous  raphides    (Fig.   364)     folium).  Leaf, 

,       ,  natural      size. 

accompanying  the  bundles.  (MOELLER.) 


460 


ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 


Leaves  of  this  species  are  used  in  Russia  as  a  substitute  for  or  an 
adulterant  of  tea. 

The  chief  characters  are  the  thin,  entire  or  sparingly  toothed  leaves  with 


^*=;m-nrtir 

FIG.  363.     Willow  Herb.     Upper  epidermis     FIG.  364.    Willow  Herb.    Lower  epidermis  of 
of  leaf.     X 160.     (MOELLER.)  leaf,  also  K  raphides  cell  and  ch  chloro- 

phyl  cells.     X 160.     (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  365.     Willow  Herb.     Epidermis  of  young  leaf  with  hairs.     (MOELLER.) 

numerous  veins  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  midrib,    the  striated  lower 
epidermis  with  wavy  walls  and  small  stomata,  and  the  raphides. 


WILLOW    LEAVES.  461 

The  leaves  of  the  hairy  willow  herb  (Epilobium  hirsutum  L.)  are 
clasping,  lanceolate,  wavy-toothed,  with  a  smooth  upper  and  a  hairy 
lower  surface  (Fig.  366).  The  pronounced  branching  veins  form  loops 
near  the  margins.  The  epidermal  cells  are  similar  to  those  of  the  foregoing 


FIG.  366.     Hairy  Willow  Herb      FIG.  367.     Hairy  Willow  Herb.       FIG.  368.  Willow  (So- 
(Epilobium  hirsutum).   Leaf,  Epidermis   of   leaf  with  hair.  lixsp.}.  Leaf,  natu- 

natural  size.     (MOELLER.)  (MOELLER.)  ralsize.  (MOELLER.) 

species,  but  the  hairs  are  smooth,  and  many  of  them  have  characteristic 
globular  heads  (Fig.  367).  Pointed  hairs,  much  longer  than  the  preceding, 
are  also  present,  being  especially  abundant  at  the  margins. 

WILLOW   LEAVES. 

The  willows  (Salix)  have  long,  pointed,  entire  or  toothed,  smooth  or 
hairy,  short -petioled,  rather  thick  leaves.  They  resemble  tea  leaves,  but 
the  veins  are  more  numerous,  and  they  do  not  form  loops  at  the  margin 
(Fig.  368). 


462  ALKALOID  A  L  PRODUCTS 

The  Epidermis  (Fig.  369)  is  much  the  same  on  both  surfaces,  but  on 
the  upper  surface  is  strongly  cuticularized  and  striated.  The  cells  are 
small,  sharply  polygonal  or  very  slightly  sinuous  in  outline.  -Numerous 
small  (25  /*)  stomata,  often  with  two  accompanying  cells,  occur  on  the 
lower  epidermis.  Both  epidermal  layers  are  clothed  with  hairs,  which 
resemble  those  of  tea,  but  are  not  geniculate.  The  hairs  of  young  leaves 


B 


FIG.  369.     Willow.     A  upper  epidermis  of  leaf.   B  lower  epidermis  with  hairs  and  stomata. 

Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

are  thin-walled,  while  those  of  full-grown  leaves  often  have  walls  so  strongly 
thickened  as  to  obliterate  the  cavities.  The  marginal  teeth  end  in  multi- 
cellular  glands. 

The  Mesophyl  contains  numerous  oxalate  rosettes  and  also  simple 
crystals. 

Willow  leaves,  according  to  the  English  consul  Medhurst,  are  collected 
in  China  in  great  quantities,  prepared  like  tea,  and  mixed  with  this  product 
to  the  extent  of  20  per  cent.  (See  Bibliography  of  Tea,  p.  458.) 

This  leaf  can  usually  be  distinguished  from  tea  by  its  venation.  The 
characteristic  microscopic  elements  are  the  thin-walled  hairs  and  the 
four-celled  stomata.  The  crystal  rosettes  of  both  leaves  are  similar, 
but  simple  crystals  are  not  found  in  tea. 

ASH    LEAVES. 

The  leaflets  of  the  odd-pinnate  leaves  of  the  ash  (Fraxinus  sp.,  order 
Oleacece),  are  similar  to  tea  leaves  in  general  outline,  although  they  are 
often  broader  and  more  sharply  toothed,  and,  furthermore,  have  very 
different  venation  (Fig.  370).  The  numerous  veins,  which  in  young 
leaves  are  especially  well  marked,  anastomose  near  the  margin,  and  from 


ROWAN  LEAVES. 


463 


the  loops  arise  short  veinlets  which  usually  end  in  the  notches  between 
the  teeth. 

Epidermis  (Fig.  371).  On  both  sides  the 
cells  have  sinuous  walls.  The  lower  epidermis 
bears  numerous  large  stomata  (30-40  //),  with- 
out accompanying  cells.  Highly  characteristic 
are  the  cuticular  thickenings  or  folds  at  the 
poles  of  the  stomata,  which  give  the  latter  a 
horned  appearance.  Glandular  hairs  with 
wheel-like  multicellular  heads,  also  short  one- 
to  two-celled  hairs  with  striated  cuticle,  occur 
on  the  lower  epidermis. 

Mesocarp  crystals  are  absent. 

The  indescribable  but  highly  characteristic 
thin  sinuous  walls  of  the  upper  epidermis,  the 
elongated  and  horned  stomata  and  the  glandular 
hairs  are  positive  means  of  distinction  from  tea. 

ROWAN    LEAVES. 

The  European  rowan  or  mountain  ash  (Sor- 
bus  Aucuparia  L.,  Pyrus  Aucuparia  Gaertn., 
order  Rosacece),  is  often  cultivated  because  of  its 
scarlet  berries.  The  odd-pinnate  leaves  are 
pubescent  when  young,  nearly  smooth  when 
old  (Fig.  372).  The  leaflets  are  lanceolate  and 
irregularly  serrate.  The  veins  pass  into  the  teeth  without  forming  loops. 
A  B 


FIG.    370.      Ash    (Fraxmus 
sp.).     Leaflet,  natural  size. 

(MOELLER.) 


FIG.  371.     Ash.     A  upper  epidermis  of  leaf.     B  lower  epidermis  with  sp  stomata  and  t 
glandular  hair.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

The  Epidermis  (Fig.  373)  of  the  under  side  is  like  that  of  the  upper 


464  ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 

side  except  that  stomata  are  present.  In  outline  the  cells  are  partly 
polygonal,  partly  sinuous.  Delicate  striations  mark  the  cuticle.  The 
long,  unicellular,  sinuous  hairs  with  rounded  bases  are  characteristic. 


FIG.  372.     Rowan  (Sorbus  Aucuparia).         FIG.  373.     Rowan.      Epidermis  of  leaf  with 
Leaf,  natural  size.     (MOELLER.)  stoma  and  hair.     (MOELLER.) 

MULBERRY  LEAVES. 

The  white  and  black  mulberry  trees  (Morus  alba  L.  and  Morus  nigra  L., 
order  Moracece),  natives  of  Asia,  are  grown  for  their  leaves  in  Southern 
Europe  and  other  silk-producing  regions,  and  elsewhere  for  their  fruit 
or  shade. 

The  leaves  of  the  white  mulberry  are  light  green,  ovate  heart-shaped, 
unequal  at  the  base,  long-petioled,  nearly  smooth  on  the  upper  side  (Fig. 
374) ;  those  of  the  black  species  are  dark  green,  heart-shaped  with  taper- 
ing point,  regular  at  the  base,  short-petioled,  with  rough  hairs  on  the 
upper  side.  •  Soft  hairs  occur  sparingly  on  the  under  surface  of  both  species 


MULBERRY  LEASES.  465 

Epidermis  (Figs.  375  and  376).      On  the  upper  side  the  cells  are 
polygonal,  while  those  of  the  under  side  are  unusually  small  and  have  sin- 


FlG.  374.     Mulberry  (Morusalba).     Leaf,  natural  size.     (MOELLER.) 

uous  walls.  '  Stomata  are  present  only  on  the  under  side.  Large  epidermal 
cells  containing  cystoliths  occur  on  both  sides,  the  cells  about  them 
forming  rosettes.  The  hairs  are  unicellular,  very  long,  thin-walled, 


FIG.  375.     Mulberry.     Section  of  lower  epidermis  of  leaf  showing  stoma  and  cystolith. 

(MOELLER.) 

smooth,  more  or    ess  sinuous,  but  quite  rigid.     Glandular  hairs  with  a 
unicellular  base  and  multicellular  head  are  also  present. 
The  Mesophyl  contains  crystal  rosettes. 


466 


ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 


COFFEE  LEAVES. 


Leaves  of  the  coffee  tree  (Coffea  Arabica  L.,  order  Rubiacece),  like  the 
seeds,  contain  caffein,  although  in  smaller  amount.     They  are  used  as 


FIG.  376.     Mulberry.     Upper  epidermis  of  leaf  (above);   lower   FIG.  377.     Coffee    (Co) 

epidermis     with     hairs,     stomata     and  cystolith     (below).       Arabica}.     Leaf,  natural 

(MOELLER.)  Size.       (MOELLER.) 

A 


FIG.  378.     Coffee.     A  upper  epidermis  of  leaf.    B  lower  epidermis.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

substitutes  for  tea  in  coffee-growing  countries,   and  their  introduction 
into  Europe  has  been  suggested. 


CAMELLIA  LEAVES. 


467 


The  leather}',  smooth,  shining,  dark-green  leaves  are  elliptical,  taper- 
ing gradually  to  a  point  at  the  apex  and  into  the  short  stem  at  the  base 
(Fig-  377)-  Teeth  are  not  present.  The  veins  form  sharp  angles  with 
the  midrib,  and  anastomose  with  the  formation  of  pronounced  curves. 

Epidermis  (Fig.  378).  The  cells  on  both  sides  have  sinuous  walls. 
On  the  under  side  large  stomata  (25-45  //)  to  the  number  of  60  per  sq. 
mm.  are  distributed  in  a  peculiar  manner  among  the  epidermal  cells. 

The  Mesophyl  contains  crystal  sand. 

The  leaf  is  prepared  for  use  by  roasting,  and  is  never  rolled  like  tea. 


CAMELLIA  LEAVES. 

The  camellia    (Camellia  Japonica  L.,  order  TernstroemiacecB)  grows 
native  in  Japan,  and  is  cultivated  as  a  greenhouse  plant  in  Europe  and. 

America.  It  is  closely  related  to  tea,  but  the 
leaves  (Fig.  379)  contain  no  caffein.  On  care- 
ful examination  geniculate  hairs  similar  to 
those  of  tea  may  be  found  on  the  young 
leaves,  but  only  on  the  margins.  These  soon 
drop  off,  leaving  the  mature  leaf  smooth  and  lus- 
trous. The  leaf  is  similar  to  the  tea  leaf  in  form 
and  venation,  but  is  larger,  broader  and  thicker. 


FIG.  379.  Camellia  (Camellia 
Japonica).  Leaf,  natural 
size.  (MOELLER.) 


FIG.    380.     Camellia.     Epidermis  of    leaf   in    cross 
section.     (MOELLER.) 


Epidermis  (Figs.  380  and  381).  Cross-sections  show  that  the  strongly 
thickened  and  cuticularized  outer  walls  have  wart-like  projections  on 
their  inner  surfaces.  In  surface  view  the  cells  show  broad  pores,  and 
in  consequence  of  the  projections  are  often  very  irregular  in  form.  The 
stomata  are  often  nearly  circular,  and  occur  only  on  the  lower  epidermis. 


468 


ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 


The  Mesophyl  contains   idioblasts   and   oxalate   crystals   similar   to 
those  of  tea. 


FIG.  381.     Camellia.     Lower  epidermis  of  leaf.     (MOELLER.) 

The  leaves  are  said  to  be  used  as  an  adulterant 
of  tea,  although  poorly  suited  for  the  purpose. 
The  thick-walled  epidermis  is  characteristic. 

CHERRY    LEAVES. 

Leaves  of  the  sweet  cherry  (Prunus  avium  L., 
order  Rosacece)  are  seldom  over  10  cm.  long, 
about  5  cm.  broad,  oblong-ovate,  taper-pointed, 
petioled,  with  numerous  teeth  on  the  margin, 
each  with  a  small  gland  (Fig.  382).  On  one  or 
both  sides  of  the  petiole  is  a  brown,  glistening 
gland. 


(Qfi 


FIG.  382.     Cherry  (Prunus 
avium).  Leaf,  natural  size. 

(MOELLER.) 


FIG.   383.     Cherry.     Upper   epidermis   of   leaf. 
X  300.     (MOELLER.) 


SLOE  LEAVES.  469 

The  Upper  Epidermis  (Fig.  383)  is  made  up  of  irregularly  polygonal 
cells  averaging  30  p,  with  a  very  delicate,  finely  striated  cuticle.  Along 
the  veins  are  a  few  unicellular,  dagger-shaped  hairs  about  600  p  long 
and  the  same  size  at  the  base  as  the  epidermal  cells. 

The  Lower  Epidermis  (Fig.  384)  consists  of  delicate  cells  with  sinuous 


FIG.  384.     Cherry.     Lower  epidermis  of  leaf.     X3oo.     (MOELLER.) 

walls,  numerous  circular  or  elliptical  stomata  and  hairs  of  the  same  type 
as  those  on  the  upper  epidermis,  but  longer  and  thinner-walled. 

Noteworthy  are  the  small  oxalate  rosettes  occurring  here 'and  there 
in  small  epidermal  cells. 

The   Mesophyl   contains    numerous   oxalate    rosettes, 
and  accompanying  the  bundles,  simple  crystals. 

The   leaves   of  the    sour  cherry  (P.  Cerasus  L.)  are 
stiff,  lustrous,  and  apparently  smooth. 


SLOE  LEAVE5. 

The  obovate  or  elliptical-lanceolate  leaves  of  the  sloe 
or  black  thorn  (Prunus  spinosa  L.)  resemble  somewhat 
tea  leaves.     Their   borders    are  sharply  and   irregularly  FlG    3g5  *  Sloe 
toothed  (Fig.  385).     The  veins  form  sharp  angles  with      (Prunus    spi- 

% o s (t ) .      J_*  c  <i  f . 

the  midrib,  and  do  not  form  distinct  loops  at  the  margin.      natural  size. 

The  Upper  Epidermis  (Fig.    386)  consists  of    thick- 
walled,  polygonal  cells  with  delicate  striations,  through  which  here  and 
there  shimmer  simple  crystals  and  rosettes. 


470 


ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 


The  Lower  Epidermis  (Fig.  387)  is  more   delicate  than  the  upper, 
and  the  cuticle  is  striated  only  in  places.     The  cells  have  slightly  sinuous 


FIG.  386.     Sloe.      Upper  epidermis  of 
leaf.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  387.  Sloe.  Lower  epidermis  of  leaf, 
seen  from  below.  The  crystal  cells  are 
not  in  the  epidermis  but  in  the  meso- 
phyl,  accompanying  the  fibro-vascular 
bundles.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 


walls,  and  are  interspersed  with  numerous  small  (25  /*)  stomata  in  groups, 

some  of  which  have  horns  like  those  of  the  ash  leaf. 

The  Mesophyl  contains  numerous  crystal  cells  with  rosettes  or  simple 

crystals  of  considerable  size.     Accompanying  the  fibro-vascular  bundles, 

particularly  on  the  under  side,  are  crystal  fibers,  some  of  which  on  remov- 
ing the  epidermis  adhere  to  it.  Unicellular,  rather  thick- 
walled,  often  sinuous  hairs  are  found  along  the  veins 
and  on  the  margins. 

ROSE   LEAVES. 

The  leaflets  of  the  odd-pinnate  leaves  of  the  rose 
(Rosa  canina  L.,  and  other  species)  are  easily  distin- 
guished from  tea  leaves  by  their  greater  breadth,  rounded 
base,  dense  and  sharp  serration,  and  vein-meshes  (Fig. 
FIG.  388  Rose  (Rosa  388).     Each  tooth  ends  in  a  multicellular  gland, 
let,   natural   size.         The  Epidermis  (Fig.  389)  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
sloe,  but  the  cuticle  is  smooth,  and  the  walls  are  in 
many  parts  knotty  and  thickened.     Many  of  the  cells,  along  the  veins, 
are  filled  with  a  homogeneous  brown  substance.     The  stomata  on  the 


STRAWBERRY  LEA  YES.  471 

lower  epidermis    are  rounded  elliptical,  of  considerable  size  (35-40  /<) 
without  accompanying  cells. 


FIG.  389.     Rose.    A  Upper  epidermis  of  leaf.    B  lower  epidermis  seen  from  below;   also 
crystals  from  mesophyl.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 


STRAWBERRY    LEAVES. 

The  wood  strawberry  (Fragaria  vesca  L.,  order  Rosacea),  has  long- 
petioled,  trifoliate  leaves  with   coarsely  serrate  leaflets  irregular  at   the 


FIG.  390.     Strawberry    (Fragaria   vesca}.     Leaflet,    natural   size.     (MOELLER.) 

base  and  hairy  underneath   (Fig.   390).     There  are  as  many  veins  as 
teeth,  each  vein  ending  in  a  tooth. 

The  Epidermis  (Figs.  391  and  392)  of  both  sides  is  similar,  except  that 


472  ALKALOID AL  PRODUCTS. 

the  cells  on  the  under  side  have  thinner  walls,  which  are  sinuous.     Two 


FlG.  391.     Strawberry.     Upper  epidermis  of  leaf.     (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  392.     Strawberry.     Lower  epidermis  of  leaf.     (MOELLER.) 

forms  of  hairs  occur  on  both  surfaces:    (i)  very  long,  unicellular,  rigid 


MEADOWSWEET  LEAVES. 


473 


and  mostly  straight,  with  thick  porous  base,  and  (2)  multicellular,  with 
globular  heads,  the  thin  walls  swelling  greatly  in  alkali. 

The  Mesophyl  contains  great  numbers  of  large  simple  crystals. 

flEADOWSWEET   LEAVES. 

Meadowsweet  (Spircea  Ulmaria  L.,  order  Rosacece)  grows  wild  in 
Europe  and  Asia  and  is  also  cultivated  for  its  flowers,  which  were  once 
used  in  medicine. 

The  interruptedly  pinnate  leaves  have  irregularly  pointed,  ovate  side 


FIG.  393.     Meadowsweet  (Spiraea  Ulmaria).     Leaflet,  natural  size.     (MoELLER.) 

leaflets,  and  3-5  lobed  end  leaflets  (Fig.  393).  Both  forms  are  com- 
poundly  serrate.  The  ribs  and  veins  are  prominent  on  the  under  surface, 
and  bear  rough  hairs.  The  veins  anastomose  some  distance  from  the 
edge  and  send  off  branches  into  the  teeth. 


474  ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 

The  Epidermis  (Figs.  394  and  395)  of  both  sides  is  delicate,  and  not 


FIG.  394.     Meadowsweet.     Upper  epidermis  of  leaf.     (MOELLER.) 

easily  separated  from  the  leaf.  On  the  upper 
side  the  walls  are  slightly  wavy,  on  the  under 
side  deeply  wavy.  Stomata  occur  only  on  the 
under  side,  hairs  of  three  forms  on  both  sides, 
but  chiefly  along  the  veins  on  the  under  side. 
The  hairs  on  the  body  of  the  leaf  are  mostly 
unicellular,  dagger-shaped,  often  sinuous,  with 


'V—  • 

FIG.   395.      Meadowsweet.      Lower        FIG.  396.  'Meadowsweet.     G  landular  hairs  of  leaf, 
epidermis  of  leaf.     (MOELLER.)  (MOELLER.) 


WISTARIA  LEAVES. 


475 


deeply-planted,  rounded-angular  base.  On  the  veins,  glandular  hairs, 
some  with  short  jointed  stems,  others  with  long  two-rowed  stems, 
predominate  (Fig.  396).  The  heads  of  both 
forms  are  multicellular  and  globular. 

The  Mesophyl  contains  a  few  crystal  rosettes 
chiefly  along  the  midrib. 

WISTARIA    LEAVES. 

In  Japan  the  odd-pinnate  leaves  of  Wistaria 
Sinensis  DC.  (Kraunhia  floribunda  Taubert, 
order  PapilionacecB)  are  used  as  an  adulterant 
of  tea.  The  leaflets  are  ovate-lanceolate,  entire, 
slightly  plaited  at  the  margins,  not  petioled 
(Fig.  397).  The  prominent  veins  form  near 
the  margin  indistinct  loops. 


FlG.  397.  Wistaria  (Wistaria 
Sinensis.)  Leaflet  natural 
size.  (MOELLER.) 


-1 


FIG.  398.     Wistaria.     Upper  epidermis  of  leaf 
in  cross  section  and  surface  view.  (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  399.     Wistaria.     Lower  epidermis  of 
leaf.     (MOELLER.) 


The  Epidermis  (Figs.  398  and  399)  consists  of  cells  with  thin  wavy 
walls  and  curious  hairs,  made  up  of  a  short  basal  cell,  a  short  thick-walled 


476 


ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 


middle  cell  and  a  long,  straight  or  sickle-shaped,  thin  walled,  pointed  end 

cell.     Stomata  occur  only  on  the  under 
side. 

Simple  crystals  accompany  the  bundles. 


FlG.    400.       Hydrangea     (Hydrangea 
Hortensia).       Leaf,      natural      size. 

(MOELLER.) 


FIG.    401.      Hydrangea.      Epidermis    of    leaf 
with  hairs.     (MOELLER.) 


HYDRANGEA    LEAVES. 

This  shrub  (Hydrangea  Hortensia  DC.,  order  Saxifragacecs),  is  a  native 
of  Japan  and  northern  China.     In  Japan  the  leaves  are  employed  as  a  tea 

m 


FIG.  402.     Hydrangea.     Lower  epidermis  of  leaf.     (MOELLER.) 

substitute  under  the  name  of  "Ama-cha."  1     They  reach  the  size  of  the 

1  Kellner,  Hayakawa,  and  Kamoshita:  Mittlg.  d.  deutsch  Ges.  f.  Nat.  u.  Volkerk.  Os- 
tasiens.  IV. 


MAPLE  LEASES.  477 

hand  and  are  short-petioled,  pointed-ovate,  entire  below,  unequally 
dentate  above  (Fig.  400).  The  veins  extend  in  gentle  curves  almost 
to  the  margin,  where  they  anastomose  and  send  off  branches  into 
the  teeth. 

Epidermis  (Figs.  401  and  402).  The  cells  are  polygonal  or  sinuous 
in  outline.  Unicellular  hairs  with  rounded  base  and  apex  occur  only 
along  the  veins. 

The  Mesophyl  contains  raphides. 

MAPLE    LEAVES. 

The  leaves  of  most  maples  are  palmately  lobed,  but  in  the  ash-leaved 
species  (Acer  Negundo  L.,  or  Negundo  jraxinijolium  Nutt,  order  Acer- 
acece)  they  are  odd-pinnate,  somewhat  resembling 
tea.     Each  leaflet  is  short-petioled,  ovate-lanceo- 
late, coarsely  but  sparingly  toothed  (Fig.  403). 
The  veins  form  indistinct  loops  near  the  margin. 
To  the  naked  eye  they  appear  smooth,  but  under 
the  lens  they  are  hairy  on  the  margins. 

Epidermis  (Fig.  404).  The  cells  are  irregu- 
larly polygonal.  Stomata  occur  on  both  surfaces, 
also:  (i)  unicellular  smooth  or  warty  hairs  with 
rounded  base,  blunt  point  and  slightly  thickened 
walls,  swelling  and  becoming  stratified  with 
alkali;  (2)  glandular  hairs  with  2-3  celled  stem 
and  unusually  large  head. 

The  Mesophyl  contains  large  simple  crystals. 

OAK     LEAVES. 

Oak  leaves  of  different  species  are  widely 
different  in  form  and  size.  The  description 
here  given  applies  to  two  European  species 
(Quercus  pedunculata  Ehrh.,  and  Q.  sessilillora 

Sm.,  order  Fdgacece). 

Epidermis   (Figs.   406  and  407)-     Polygonal 
cells   and   2-3   celled   hairs  with    rounded   apex 
and,  often,  broad  base,  are  found  on  both  surfaces;    stomata  only  on 
the  lower  surface. 


FIG.  403.     Ash  -leafed  Maple 


478 


ALKALOIDAL   PRODUCTS. 


FIG.  404.     Ash-leafed  Maple.     Upper  epidermis  of  leaf.     (MOELLER.) 

Mesophyl.  The  bundles  are  accom- 
panied by  simple  crystals. 

AKEBIA    LEAVES. 

According  to  Kellner 1  the  leaves  of 
"Fagi-Kadsura-Akebi"  (Akebia  quinata 
(Thbg.)  Decaisne,  order  Lardizabalacece), 
a  perennial  climbing  plant,  are  used  in 
Japan  as  a  tea  substitute.  The  plant  is 
cultivated  in  the  Occident  for  ornament. 

The  obovate,  entire,  petioled  leaflets 
are  smooth,  with  four  or  less  deli- 
cate veins,  forming  broad  loops  (Fig. 
408). 

Epidermis  (Figs.  409  _  and  410).  On 
the  upper  side  the  cells  are  large,  with 
pronounced  wavy  walls;  on  the  under  side 
they  are  smaller  and  more  nearly  poly- 
gonal, and  usually  have  papillae  similar 
to  those  of  cocoa  leaves,  although  not  so 

1  Loc.  cit. 


AKEBIA  LEAVES. 


479 


strongly  thickened.     These  papillae  are  not  found  on  the  four  or  more 
cells  adjoining  the  stomata. 


FIG.  406.     Oak.     Upper  epidermis  of  leaf.     (MOELLER.) 


-- 


FlG.  407.     Oak.     Lower  epidermis  of  leaf.     (MOELLER.)         FIG.  408.     Akebia  (Akebia 

quinata).   Leaflet,  natural 
size.     (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  409.     Akebia.     Upper  epidermis  of  leaf.     (MoELLEP.) 


480 


ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 


FIG.  410.     Akebia.     Lower  epidermis  of  leaf.     (MOELLER.) 

Mesophyl.     A   few  simple  crystals   accompany  the  bundles. 


BLUEBERRY   LEAVES. 

Of  the  numerous  species  of  blueberries,  the  common  European 
species  (V actinium  Myrtillus  L.,  order  Ericacece)  .is  here  described.  The 
leaves  are  ovate,  finely  serrate  and  lustrous  (Fig.  411).  The  veins  are  not 


FIG.  411.  European  Blueberry 
(V actinium  Myrtillus).  Leaf, 
natural  size.  (MOELLER.) 


FIG.    412.      European    Blueberry.     Margin    of 
leaf  with  teeth,  under  a  lens.     (MOELLER.) 


prominent,  but  form  a  beautiful  network.     Under  a  lens  each  tooth  is 
seen  to  end  in  a  stalked  gland  (Fig.  412). 

Epidermis  (Figs.  413  and  414).  On  the  upper  side  stomata  are  absent, 
and  the  cells  are  either  isodiametric,  deeply  sinuous,  or,  along  the  veins, 
elongated,  slightly  sinuous.  Unicellular,  warty,  sickle-shaped  hairs  and 
multicellular  glandular  hairs  like  those  .of  the  teeth,  accompany  the  elon- 
gated cells.  The  lower  epidermis  consists  of  deeply  sinuous  cells,  stomata 


CAUCASIAN   TEA. 


481 


with  4-5  accompanying  cells,  and  glandular  hairs  like  those  described. 
Hanausek  finds  that  if  the  margin  is  boiled  with  dilute  potash,  numerous 


FIG.  413.     European  Blueberry.     Upper  epidermis  of  leaf.     fMoELLER.) 

fine    crystals,     soluble    in    acetic    acid,    separate    from    the    glandular 
secretion. 

Mesophyl.     Simple  crystals  occur  in  crystal  fibers  or  singly. 

CAUCASIAN   TEA. 

In  Russia  the  leaves  of  V actinium  Arctostaphylos  L.  are  prepared 
like  tea.  Leaves  of  this  species  are  considerably  larger  than  the  preced- 
ing species,  leathery,  finely  serrate,  appearing  smooth  to  the  naked  eye. 
The  veins  on  the  under  side  are  prominent,  forming  indistinct  loops 
distant  from  the  margin.  Under  the  lens  hairs  are  evident  along  these 
veins,  also  a  glandular  hair  on  each  tooth. 

Epidermis  (Figs.  415  and  416).  The  upper  epidermal  cells  are  poly- 
gonal, thick- walled,  often  porous,  with  a  striated  cuticle;  those  of  the 


482  ALKALOID  A  L  PRODUCTS. 

lower  epidermis  are  sinuous,  with  thin  walls.     Unicellular,  thick-walled 


FIG.  414.     European  Blueberry.     Lower  epidermis  of  leaf.     (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  415.     Caucasian  Tea  (Vaccinium  FIG.  416.  Caucasian    Tea.     Lower  epidermis 

Arctostaphylos).      Upper  epidermis  of  leaf.     (MOELLER.) 

of  leaf.     (MOELLER.) 

warty  hairs  occur  on  both  surfaces,  but  in  the  greatest  numbers  along  the 
midrib  on  the  under  side.     Glandular  hairs  occur  not  only  on  the  teeth 


MATE. 


483 


but   also,    sparingly,    on   the   surface.     Hanausek   notes   a   third   form, 
designated  "bladder  hairs. " 

Mesophyl.     Crystal  rosettes  and  simple  crystals  are  present,  the  latter 
along  the  bundles. 


OTHER  TEA    SUBSTITUTES. 

Mate,  the  only  substitute  for  tea  containing  caffein,  is  described 
below.  Leaves  of  the  following  plants  are  or  have  been  used  as  sub- 
stitutes in  the  regions  named: 

North  America:  Species  of  Ledum  (Labrador  Tea);  Ceanothus 
Americanus  L.  (New  Jersey  Tea);  species  of  Monarda  (Oswego  Tea); 
Cheno podium  ambrosioides  L.  (Mexican  Tea). 

South  America:  Lantana  pseudothea,  Stachytarpheta  Jamaicensis, 
P sor alia  glandula,  Myrtus  Ugni,  Alstonia  thecejormis,  Capraria  biflora, 
Angrecum  jragrans,  and  Eritrichium  gnaphaloides. 

China:  Sageretia  theezans. 

Australia:  Species  Myrtacea. 

MATE. 

Mate,  Paraguay  tea,  or  Jesuit  tea,  is  prepared 
from  the  leaves  of  Ilex  Paraguariensis  St.  Hil. 
(order  A  quijoliacece) ,  a  small  tree  growing  in  South 
America.  The  leafy  branches  are  cut  from  the  tree 
and  dried  by  artificial  heat,  after  which  the  leaves 
are  stripped  off  and  ground  to  a  coarse  powder. 
In  this  form  it  is  placed  on  the  market  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  tea.  It  is  quite  commonly  used  in  South 
America,  but  not  to  any  extent  in  other  regions, 
notwithstanding  repeated  efforts  of  promoters.  The 
product  contains  as  high  as  20  per  cent  of  tannin 
and  a  considerable  amount  of  caff ein~  (0.5-0.9  per 
cent). 

The  leaves  are  up  to  13  cm.  or  more  long  and  4 
cm.  broad,  ovate  or  nearly  spatulate,  papering  to  the       Paraguariensis).  Leaf; 
short  petiole,  blunt  or  rounded  at  the  apex.     They       ^ural  size-    (MOEL: 
are  dentate,  smooth  but  only  slightly  lustrous,  and 
leathery  (Fig.  417).     The  veins  form  sharp  loops  at  some  distance  from 
the  margin.     The  secondary  veins  are  also  distinct. 


484 


ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 
HISTOLOGY. 


Epidermis  (Figs.  418  and  419).     On  both  sides  the  cells  are  moreo 
less  polygonal,  with  striated  cuticle.     Along  the  veins  they  are  arrangec 


FIG.  418.     Mate.     Upper  epidermis  of  leaf,  from  one  of  the  veins.     (MoELLER.) 

side  by  side  in  rows.     Numerous  stomata,  larger  than  the   surrounding 
cells,  occur  on  the  lower  epidermis. 

The  Mesophyl  contains   oxalate   rosettes.     Thick   strands   of  fibers 
accompany  the  bundles. 


FlG.  419.     Mate".     Lower  epidermis  of  leaf.     (MOELLER.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Moeller  (30,  31,  32);  Planchon  et  Collin 
(34);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Vogl  (44). 

CADOR:  Anatomische  Untersuchungen  der  Matebl alter  unter  Beriicksichtigung  ihres 
Gehaltes  an  Tern.     Bot.  Centralbl.  1900. 


COCA. 


485 


COLLIN:   Du  mate  ou  the  du  Paraguay.     Journ.  pharm.  chim.,  1891. 

COLLIN:   Journ.  pharm.  1886. 

DOUBLET:  Le  mate.     Paris,  1885. 

LOESENER:    Beitrage  zur  Kenntnis  der  Matepflanzen.      Ber.   deutsch.    pharm.    Ges. 

1896.     Notizbl.  d.  konigl.  Bot.  Gartens  u.   Museums  in  Berlin,  1897.    Verb.  d. 

bot.  Ver.  d.  Provinz  Brandenburg,  1891. 
NEGER  und  VANINO:  Der  Paraguay-Tee.     Stuttgart,  1903. 
POLENSKE  u.  BUSSE:   Beitrage  zur  Kenntnis  der  Matesorten  des  Handels.  Arb.  des 

kaiserl.  Gesundheitsamtes,  1898. 

COCA. 

The  leaves  of  the  coca  shrub  (Erythroxylon  Coca  Lam.,  order  Ery- 
throxylacea)  have  been  chewed  by  South  American  natives  for  genera- 
tions. Of  late  years  they  have  been  in  demand  for  the  preparation  of 
cocaine,  the  well-known  anaesthetic.  The  full-grown  leaves  (Fig.  420)  are 
6-8  cm.  long,  half  as  broad,  ovate,  blunt  or  rounded 
at  the  apex,  short -petioled,  smooth,  light  green  beneath. 
The  midrib  extended  beyond  the  apex  forms  a  short 
prickle.  The  veins  anastomose  some  distance  from 
the  entire  but  slightly  revolute  margin,  while  the 
veinlets  form  a  delicate  network  with  wide  meshes. 
On  holding  a  leaf  to  the  light,  two  slender  curved 


FIG.  420.  Coca  (Ery- 
throxylan '  Coca"). 
Leaf,  natural  size. 

(MOELLER.) 


FiG.  421.  Coca.  Leaf  in  cross  section,  epa  upper 
epidermis;  p  palisade  cells;  m  spongy  parenchyma 
with  bundle  and  K  crystal  cell;  epi  lower  epidermis 
with  sp  stoma.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER,) 


ribs  running  each  side  of  the  midrib  from  base   to    apex   are  evident. 
These  are  not  at  all  connected  with  the  venation,  but  serve  to  stiffen 

the  leaf. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Cross  sections  show  a  small-celled  upper  epidermis  with  a  thin  cuticle, 
a  single  layer  of  moderately  elongated  palisade  cells,  a  loose  spongy 
parenchyma  pierced  by  vascular  bundles,  and  finally  the  lower  epidermis 
of  curiously  humped  cells  (Fig.  421). 


486 


ALKALOIDAL  PRODUCTS. 


The  Upper  Epidermis  (Fig.  422)  consists  of  somewhat  thick,  polygonal 
cells  with  a  finely  granular  cuticle. 

The  Lower  Epidermis  (Fig.  423)  has  walls  similar  to  those  of  the  upper, 
but  somewhat  wavy.  In  the  middle  of  each  is  a  hump-like  papilla  which 


FIG.  422.  Coca.  Upper  epidermis  of 
leaf  and  p  palisade  cells,  from  below. 
X 160.  (MOELLER.) 


Flo.  423.      Coca.      Lower  epidermis  of  leaf 
with    sp   stoma.     X 160.     (MOELLER.) 


in  surface  view  appears  like  a  circle  with  double  contour.  The  stomata 
are  very  small  (20-30  //),  and  are  flanked  by  two  accompanying  cells 
without  papillae. 

Mesophyl.  Monoclinic  crystals  are  abundant,  particularly  on  the 
under  side  of  the  bundles.  In  the  false  ribs  the  subepidermal  tissue  is 
not  spongy  but  collenchymatous,  thus  strengthening  the  leaf. 

The  venation  and  the  lower  epidermis  are  characteristic. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Koch,  L.  (22);  Moeller  (30,31,32);  Plan- 
chon  und  Collin  (34);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Vogl  (44). 
HARTWICH:    Beitr.  z.  Kenntnis  d.  Cocablatter.  Arch.  d.  Pharm.   1903. 
HARTWICH:   Beitr.  z.  Kenntnis  d.  Cocablatter.     Pharm.  Praxis,  1904, 
HARTWICH:    "Coca"  in  Realenzykl.  d.  ges.  Pharm.     2.  Aufl.,  III.  1904. 
MOELLER:   Die  Falten  des  Cocablattes.     Pharm.  Post,  1891. 
NEVINNY:   Das  Cocablatt.     Wien,  1866. 


TOBACCO. 

Two  species  (Nicotiana  Tabacum  L.,  N.  rustica  L.,  order  Solanacea] 
and  their  varieties,  yield  the  tobacco  of  commerce.  These  plants,  natives 
of  the  New  World,  were  first  introduced  into  Europe  in  1586  by  Francis 
Drake. 


TOBACCO. 


487 


FIG.  424.     Tobacco    (Nicotiana    Tabacum}.     Small   leaf,    natural   size.     (MOELLER.) 


488 


ALKALOIDAL   PRODUCTS. 


Tobacco  leaves  are  ovate  or  ovate-lanceolate,  entire,  up  to  \  meter 
long,  broad  or  rather  narrow,  petioled  or  sessile  (Fig.  424).  They  are 
glandular-hairy.  The  veins  form  loops  near  the  margins. 


HISTOLOGY. 


The  general  structure  of  the  leaf  is  learned  from  cross-sections  (Fig. 
425);  the  details  of  chief  value  in  diagnosis  from  surface  preparations 
of  the  epidermis  (Figs.  426  and  427). 

Epidermis.    The  cells  are  large,  and  on  the  lower  surface  have  dis- 


\ 


dh- 


m- 


dh 


FIG.  425.  Tobacco.  Cross  section  through  midrib,  epo  upper  epidermis;  p  palisade 
cells;  m  spongy  perenchyma;  c  collenchyma;  epi  lower  epidermis;  g  nbro-vascular 
bundle;  K  crystal  sand;  h  jointed  hair;  dh  glandular  hairs.  X  100.  (MOELLER.) 

tinctly  wavy  walls.  Stomata  are  about  three  times  as  numerous  on  the 
under  surface  as  on  the  upper.  The  clammy  hairs  are  all  multicellular, 
with  thin  walls  and  a  broad  base,  but  are  of  four  forms:  (i)  jointed 
with  pointed  or  blunt  apex;  (2)  like  the  first,  but  branching;  (3)  glandu- 


TOBACCO.  489 

lar  with  multicellular  head  and  jointed  stem;  (4)  like  the  last,  but  with 
short  unicellular  stem.     The  first  three  forms  reach  an  extraordinary 


FIG.  426.     Tobacco.     Upper  epidermis.     Xi6o.     FIG.  427.     Tobacco.     Lower  epidermis. 

(MOELLER.)  Xl6o.       (MOELLER.) 

length,  and  are  usually  evident  to  the  naked  eye.     The  cuticle  is  striated 
and  often  granular  on  the  surface. 

Mesophyl.  The  chlorophyl  parenchyma  is  brown.  Numerous  cells 
filled  with  crystal  sand  are  present. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  characteristic  elements  are  the  epidermis  with  the  four  forms 
of  multicellular  hairs,  also  the  mesocarp  cells  with  crystal  sand.  The 
epidermal  cells  with  hairs  are  readily  found  in  surface  preparations  of 
fragments  from  cigars,  smoking  and  chewing  tobacco,  also  in  powder 
mounts  of  snuff.  The  latter,  being  made  from  the  coarser  part  of  the 
leaf,  contains  a  preponderance  of  vascular  elements.  Before  searching 
for  adulterants  the  material  should  be  boiled  with  dilute  alkali,  filtered 
and  washed. 

Hauenschild  states  that  leaves  of  the  following  are  used  in  tobacco: 
Cherry,  artichoke,  linden,  acacia,  walnut,  sunflower,  arnica,  watercress, 
hemp,  rose,  oak,  dock,  betony,  chestnut,  melilot,  and  especially  beet, 
cabbage,  chicory,  and  potato.  In  the  manufacture  of  plug  tobacco 
the  following  materials  are  employed:  Common  salt,  sirup,-  sugar, 


49°  ALKALOIDAL   PRODUCTS. 

licorice,  rum,  sal-ammoniac,  prunes,  tamarinds,  vanilla,  essential  oils, 
benzoic  acid,  carob  beans,  saltpetre,  potash,  cloves,  anise,  violet  root, 
gum,  dextrine,  etc.  Various  materials,  in  powder  form,  may  be  used  as 
adulterants. 

In  Germany  the  revenue  law  allows  the  addition  to  tobacco  of  a  cer- 
tain percentage  of  cherry  and  rose  leaves  (see  pp.  468-471).  English  laws 
prohibit  the  use  of  the  following:  Sugar,  sirup,  molasses,  honey,  malt 
sprouts,  roasted  seeds,  chicory,  lime,  sand,  umber,  ocher  or  other  earths, 
seaweed,  roots,  moss,  and  all  leaves  and  herbs. 

Some  of  the  leaves  used  as  adulterants  are  described  elsewhere  in 
this  work;  others  must  be  learned  by  experience.  Usually  all  that  is 
necessary  is  to  prove  that  the  leaf  is  not  tobacco. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Moeller  (30,  31,  32);  Molisch  (33);  Planchon 
et  Collin  (34);  Vogl  (44);  Krasser  (48). 
KONING:    Der  Tabak.     Leipzig,  1900. 
KISSLING:    Der  Tabak.    Berlin,  1893. 


PART  IX. 

SPICES   AND  CONDIMENTS. 


SPICES    AND   CONDIMENTS.1 

Under  the  head  of  spices  and  condiments  are  here  grouped  all  products 
used  merely  for  flavoring.  They  include  certain  fruits  (pepper,  cayenne, 
allspice,  anise,  vanilla,  etc.),  seeds  (nutmeg,  mustard,  etc.),  roots  (gin- 
ger, horseradish,  etc.),  barks  (cassia,  cinnamon,  and  clove  bark),  flower 
buds  (cloves,  capers,  cassia  buds),  leaves  and  herbs  (sage,  savory,  bay 
leaf,  etc.). 

Mustard  seeds  are  described  for  convenience  with  other  cruciferous 
seeds  in  the  section  on  oil  seeds. 

Turmeric,  a  root  allied  to  ginger,  and  saffron,  the  stigmas  of  Crocus 
sativus,  although  chiefly  valuable  as  dyes,  are  also  classed  as  spices. 

The  valuable  constituents  of  most  spices  are  essential  oils,  although 
the  pungent  principles  of  mustard  and  horseradish  are  sulphur  com- 
pounds, and  the  capsicin  of  cayenne  pepper  and  paprika,  as  well  as 
the  vanillin  of  the  vanilla  bean,  are  crystalline  solids.  The  tissues  and 
other  elements,  although  useless  for  seasoning,  are  of  chief  service 
in  diagnosis. 

The  Impurities  of  spices  introduced  through  accident  or  through 
faulty  methods  of  collecting,  curing,  cleaning,  and  handling,  include 
dirt,  small  stones,  woody  matter,  extraneous  parts  of  the  plant,  weed 
seeds,  and  insect  contamination. 

Mineral  Matter.  Dirt  in  the  form  of  dust  is  deposited  during  the 
growing  or  ripening  periods  on  fruits,  barks  and  leaves,  but  not,  of  course, 
on  seeds  protected  by  the  pericarp.  It  is  washed  off  to  some  extent  by 
rains,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  rains  often  spatter  mud  on  low-growing 
plants,  thus  seriously  injuring  the  quality  of  the  product.  It  is  well 
known  in  the  trade  that,  for  this  reason  alone,  cayenne  pepper,  sage, 
and  other  spices,  differ  greatly  from  year  to  year  in  cleanness. 

Certain    commercial    varieties    of    black  pepper,    such    as    Acheen, 

lPThe  descriptions  of  barks  (excepting  cassia),   rhizomes,  leaves,  and  flowers   are  by 
PROF.  J.  MOELLER. 

493 


494  SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 

Lampong,  Tellicherry,  etc.,  are  sun-dried  on  the  ground,  and  as  a  con- 
sequence are  contaminated  with  lumps  of  dirt,  stones,  sticks,  etc.,  while 
Singapore  pepper,  being  a  fire-dried  product,  is  much  cleaner. 

Ginger  and  other  roots  are  freed  from  adhering  soil  by  washing,  but 
the  undecorticated  sorts,  such  as  African  and  Calcutta,  are  seldom  abso- 
lutely clean  when  placed  on  the  market. 

Scraped  cassia  and  Ceylon  cinnamon  are  usually  quite  clean,  while 
unscraped  cassia,  and  particularly  cassia  chips,  are  often  more  or  less 
contaminated  with  adhering  dirt.  Low  grade  or  broken  China  cassia 
is  particularly  dirty. 

Limed  nutmegs  and  "  bleached  "  ginger  are  coated  with  a  thin  layer 
of  calcium  carbonate  which  is  said  to  prevent  the  ravages  of  insects,  and 
is  not,  therefore,  regarded  as  an  adulteration. 

Penang  white  pepper  is  invariably  coated  with  a  brown-gray  layer 
consisting  largely  of  calcium  carbonate. 

Extraneous  Matter  from  the  .plant  itself,  such  as  stems  in  cayenne 
pepper,  cloves,  allspice,  umbelliferous  fruits,  and  various  leaves,  also 
shells  in  nutmegs  and  pepper,  should  be  present  only  in  very  small  quanti- 
ties in  properly  cleaned  spices.  The  fact  that  the  impurity  is  produced 
by  the  same  plant  as  yields  the  spice  is  no  valid  excuse  for  not  removing 
such  an  impurity  or  for  its  willful  addition.  Clove  stems,  for  example, 
are  as  much  an  adulterant  in  ground  cloves,  as  would  be  sawdust  made 
from  the  clove  tree. 

Weed  Seeds  are  accidental  impurities  of  mustard  and  umbelliferous 
seeds,  from  which  they  can  be  largely  removed  by  sifting.  Most  of  the 
other  common  spices,  are  not  subject  to  this  kind  of  contamination. 

Insects,  although  avoiding  certain  spices  rich  in  essential  oil,  cause 
great  havoc  in  certain  others.  The  drug-store  beetle  is  almost  sure  to 
make  its  appearance  in  whole  nnlimed  ginger,  if  stored  for  a  long  time, 
burrowing  through  the  roots  and  transforming  nearly  the  whole  product 
into  an  unappetizing  powder.  Cayenne  pepper  and  paprika,  both  whole 
and  ground,  are  attacked  by  a  small  moth  which  spins  a  dense  web  through 
the  material.  Nutmegs  used  for  grinding  are  often  lightweight  kernels 
from  which  the  starchy  matter  has  been  almost  entirely  eaten  out  by  insects, 
leaving  only  the  brown  resinous  veins.  Mites  and  other  insects  infesting 
cereal  products,  also  occur  in  mustard  flour  mixed  with  wheat  flour,  corn 
meal,  and  other  cereal  adulterants. 

Adulterants.  Probably  no  class  of  products  are  so  frequently  or  so 
grossly  adulterated  as  ground  spices.  The  incentive  is  unusually  great 


ADULTERANTS.  495 

owing  to  their  high  cost  and  their  strong  odor,  which  conceals  a  consider- 
able admixture  of  worthless  material. 

A  list  of  the  adulterants  includes  a  great  variety  of  cheap  materials 
in  .powder  form,  and  also  certain  dyes  and  pigments,  added  to  conceal  the 
makeweights. 

Inorganic  Materials.  These  are  partly  diluents,  such  as  calcium 
sulphate,  calcium  carbonate,  brick-dust,  coal-ashes,  sand  and  clay,  and 
partly  pigments,  such  as  Venetian  red  and  chrome  yellow.  Because  of 
their  greater  weight  they  are  used  less  often  than  vegetable  materials. 
Calcium  sulphate  (plaster  of  Paris  or  gypsum)  is  occasionally  added  to 
mustard  flour  and  ground  ginger,  but  not  to  the  dark-colored  spices. 
Brick-dust  has  been  found  in  cayenne  pepper,  coal-ashes  in  white  pepper, 
and  sand  in  various  spices.  Venetian  red  (iron  oxide)  is  used  in  imitating 
the  color  of  cloves,  allspice,  cinnamon,  and  nutmeg,  while  chrome  yellow 
formerly  was  used  in  mustard. 

Organic  Material.  Among  the  numerous  diluents  of  vegetable  origin 
are  flour,  bran  and  chaff  of  the  cereals ;  hulls,  bran,  and  other  products  of 
buckwheat;  screenings;  peas,  beans,  and  other  legumes;  linseed  meal, 
cottonseed  meal,  ground  cocoanut  cake,  and  other  oil  cakes;  cocoanut 
shells  (raw  and  charred),  almond  shells,  and  other  nut  shells;  olive  stones; 
sawdust,  red  sandalwood,  and  other  woody  materials;  clove  stems, 
mustard  hulls,  pepper  shells,  exhausted  spices,  and  other  waste  products 
from  spices.  Other  adulterants  are :  cayenne  pepper,  added  to  adulterated 
black  pepper  to  reinforce  its  pungency ;  turmeric  and  other  dyes  used  to 
cclor  mustard;  red  coal-tar  dyes  added  to  cayenne  pepper;  and  finally 
Bombay  mace,  a  worthless  substitute  for  true  mace.  This  list  is  far  from 
complete,  but  includes  the  materials  most  commonly  employed. 

The  analyst  will  be  greatly  aided  in  his  search  by  a  knowledge  of  the 
available  materials  and  commercial  practices  in  his  own  country.  For 
example,  ground  hazelnut  shells  is  a  distinctively  European  adulterant, 
while  ground  cocoanut  shells  is  distinctively  American;  also  rape,  sun- 
flower, and  several  other  oil  cakes  are  used  in  Europe,  while  only  linseed 
and  cottonseed  cakes  are  commonly  available  in  America. 

Hints  on  the  detection  of  foreign  materials  are  given  in  the  final  section 
under  each  spice. 

Identification  of  Ground  Spices  in  spice  mixtures  or  other  food  products 
is  sometimes  desirable,  and  for  this  purpose  the  key  on  p.  498  may  be 
found  useful. 


496  SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 

METHODS  OF  EXAMINATION. 

Preliminary  Examination.  The  odor  and  especially  the  taste  of  th 
different  spices  is,  as  a  rule,  so  characteristic,  that  complete  substitution 
of  other  products  would  be  recognized  even  by  a  layman.  But  adulterations 
with  inert  substances  are  not  so  readily  detected  by  either  the  sense  of 
smell  or  of  taste,  although  one  with  experience  will  often  find  cause  for 
suspicion. 

The  color  is  a  valuable  guide,  as  it  is  no  easy  matter  to  color  fraudulent 
mixtures  so  as  to  exactly  imitate  the  genuine.  For  example,  colored 
mustard  flour  is  almost  always  much  yellower  than  the  uncolored,  and. 
colored  cayenne  pepper  is  of  a  somewhat  different  shade  from  the  genuine. 

Texture  and  "grain"  are  also  altered  by  the  addition  of  foreign  sub- 
stances. 

After  removing  the  finer  material  by  sifting,  or  separating  into  strata 
by  jarring  on  a  sheet  of  paper,  suspicious  fragments  may  often  be  picked 
out  under  a  lens.  These  are  first  examined  as  to  their  color,  texture, 
hardness  and  similar  physical  characters  and  then  crushed  or  macerated 
for  microscopic  examination. 

Chemical  Analysis.  The  following  determinations,  applicable  to  most 
of  the  spices,  are  of  value  in  diagnosis:  total  ash,  ash  soluble  in  water, 
sand  (ash  insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid),  fixed  oil  (non-volatile  ether 
extract),  essential  oil  (volatile  ether  extract),  alcohol  extract,  crude  fiber, 
crude  starch  (copper-reducing  matters  by  direct  inversion),  pure  starch 
(by  the  diastase  method),  and  total  nitrogen. 

If  the  quantity  of  ash  is  excessive,  it  should  be  examined  for  sand, 
calcium  sulphate,  iron  oxide,  and  similar  impurities. 

Determination  of  essential  oil  is  especially  valuable  in  the  examination 
of  cloves,  as  this  spice  normally  contains  as  high  as  20  per  cent  of  this 
constituent,  but  in  the  examination  of  other  spices  is  of  lesser  importance, 
the  percentage  being  usually  small  and  exceedingly  variable. 

Although  possessing  no  pungent  qualities,  certain  fixed  oils  are  char- 
acteristic constituents  of  mustard,  mace,  cayenne,  and  other  spic  es. 

Determination  of  crude  fiber  aids  greatly  in  detecting  nut  shells,  saw- 
dust and  similar  woody  adulterants,  while  determination  of  starch  serves 
both  to  detect  starchy  adulterants  in  non-starchy  spices,  and  non-starchy 
adulterants  in  starchy  spices. 

Among  the  processes  applicable  only  to  certain  spices  are  the  determina- 
tion of  crude  piperine  (nitrogen  in  the  non-volatile  ether  extract)  in  black 


METHODS  OF  EXAMINATION.  497 

and  white  pepper;  of  cold-water  extract  in  ginger  (to  detect  exhausted 
ginger);  of  tannin  in  cloves  and  allspice;  also  the  qualitative  tests  for 
Bombay  mace',  turmeric,  coal-tar  colors,  etc. 

Microscopical  Examination  is  by  far  the  most  valuable,  and  in  many 
cases  the  only,  means  of  detecting  vegetable  adulterants  in  spices.  Even 
in  cases  where  chemical  analysis  furnishes  evidences  of  foreign  admixtures, 
microscopic  examination  is  usually  essential  to  determine  the  nature  and 
origin  of  that  admixture.  As  a  rule  this  examination  coupled  with  a 
determination  of  ash  is  all  that  is  needed  in  pronouncing  on  a  suspected 
sample. 

The  microscopist  who  undertakes  this  work  should  have  at  his  command 
for  comparison  authenticated  samples  of  whole  and  ground  spices  as  well 
as  of  spice  adulterants. 

Direct  Examination  in  water  of  the  finely  ground  material  and  of  sus- 
pected fragments  picked  out  under  the  lens,  also  a  second  examination, 
after  the  addition  of  iodine,  serves  for  the  identification  of  the  starch 
grains  and  some  of  the  tissues.  The  same  portion  should  afterward  be 
treated  with  a  small  drop  of  alkali,  thus  rendering  the  tissues  more  dis- 
tinct. Another  valuable  clearing  agent  is  chloral  hydrate  solution,  in 
a  few  drops  of  which  a  small  portion  of  the  material  is  allowed  to  soak 
for  some  hours. 

Of  the  characteristic  reactions  for  the  detection  of  particular  spices 
only  two  need  here  be  mentioned,  namely,  the  change  from  yellow  to 
brown-red  of  fragments  of  turmeric  on  treatment  with  ammonia,  potash 
or  soda,  and  the  red  color  imparted  to  hulls  of  charlock  on  heating  with 
chloral. 

In  the  simple  manner  described  most  of  the  adulterants  can  be  de- 
tected by  one  familiar  with  the  elements  of  the  spices  themselves  and 
of  the  adulterants.  Treatment  with  other  reagents  is  sometimes  useful 
but  seldom  essential. 

The  Special  Methods  of  preparing  the  material  for  microscopic 
examination  described  under  flour  (p.  54),  and  cereal  feeds  (p.  59) 
are  applicable  for  starchy  spices,  or  spices  containing  an  admixture  of 
starchy  matter,  while  those  described  under  oil  seeds  products  (p.  171) 
are  applicable  for  spices  free  from  starch.  The  crude  fiber  process  is 
one  of  the  most  useful  of  these  methods.  It  is,  however,  seldom  necessary 
to  resort  to  preliminary  treatment,  as  direct  examination  in  water  or  some 
other  medium,  and  treatment  with  reagents  on  the  slide,  are  usually 
quite  as  satisfactory. 


498  SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


Analytical  Key  to  the  Common  Spices  used  in  Powder  Form. 


A.  Starch  present;  epidermal  tissues  with  stomata  absent. 

(a)  Starch  grains  minute  (2-10/0,  polygonal,  forming  compact  masses. 

*  Stone  cells  present,  those  of  the  hypodermal  layer  small,  thick -walled. 

1.  Endocarp  of  small  stone  cells  (less  than  50  /O  with  broad  cavity.  .  .Pepper. 

2.  Endocarp  of  large  stone  cells  (over  50  /O  with  narrow  cavity Cubebs. 

3.  Endocarp  of  very  large,  porous,  elongated  cells Long  Pepper. 

**  Stone  cells  absent. 

4.  Mosaic  of  brown,  thick -walled  palisade  cells Cardamom. 

(5)  Starch  grains  medium  size  (up  to  20  /O,  rounded,  often  in  small  aggregates; 

hilum  distinct. 

5.  Stone  cells   and   bast  fibers  present Cinnamon1   and   Cassia. 

6.  Stone-cells  present;    bast  fibers  absent;    tissues  of    spermoderm  port -wine 

color Allspice. 

7.  Neither  stone  cells  nor  bast   fibers   present;  tissues  of  perisperm   brown. 

Nutmeg. 

(c)  Starch  grains  large  (mostly  over  20  /t),  pear-shaped;  hilum  excentric;  reticulated 
vessels  present. 

8.  Starch  grains  perfect;    bast  fibers  present;   tissues  nearly  colorless.  .Ginger. 

9.  Starch  grains  mostly  in  formless  masses;    bast  fibers  absent;   tissues  bright 

yellow,  becoming  brown-red  with  alkali Turmeric. 

B.  Starch  absent;  epidermal  tissues  with  stomata  absent  except  on  calyx  of  12  and  13. 

10.  Palisade  cells  of  speimoderm  form  a  brown  mosaic  with  darker  reticulations. 

Brown  Mustard. 

11.  Palisade  cells  of  spermodenn  form  a  yellow  mosaic  without  reticulations. 

White  Mustard. 

12.  Epidermal  cells  of  pericarp  polygonal,  with  yellow  walls;    ground  tissue 

contains  yellow  or  red  oil  drops Paprika. 

13.  Same  as  last,  but  epidermal  cells  quadrilateral,  in  rows.  .  .  .Cayenne  Pepper. 

14.  Epidermis  of  large  elongated  cells;    ground  tissue  contains  amylodextrine- 

starch  grains   (red  with  iodine) Mace. 

15.  Yellow  color  soluble  in  water;    pollen  grains  often  present Saffron. 

C.  Starch  grains  absent  (except  in  chlorophyl  grains);   epidermal  tissues  with  stomata 

present, 
(a)  Chlorophyl  absent. 

16.  Numerous  oil  cells;    crystal  cells  in  rows  beside  spiral  vessels Cloves 

17.  Brown  jointed  oil  ducts  present Umbelliferous  Fruits   (p.  551) 

(6)  Chlorophyl  present. 

*  Hairs  absent. 

18.  Epidermal  cells  with  thick,  wavy  walls Bay  Leaf 

**  Epidermis  with  simple,  jointed  and  disk-shaped  (glandular)  hairs. 

t  Hairs  smooth. 

1  Cassia  buds  have  small  starch  grains,  epidermal  hairs,  and  numerous  bundles. 


CONDIMENTAL   CATTLE  AND  POULTRY  FOODS,  499 

19.  Jointed  hairs  very  numerous,  long,  narrow,  pointed Sage. 

tt  Hairs  warty  or  smooth. 

20.  Jointed  hairs  numerous,  long,  broad,  straight,  thin-walled Marjoram. 

21.  Hairs  very  numerous,  mostly  short,  conical Thyme. 

22.  Hairs  few,  those  with  joints  bent  near  the  end,  thin-walled Savory. 

Condimental  Cattle  and  Poultry  Foods. 

Numerous  proprietary  mixtures  of  cereal  or  oil-seed  products,  with 
aromatic  substances,  simple  drugs  and  other  materials,  are  extensively 
advertised  as  food  auxiliaries,  appetizers  and  tonics  for  bovine  cattle, 
horses,  swine  and  poultry.  They  occupy  a  place  between  ordinary 
cattle  foods  on  one  hand  and  condition  powders  on  the  other,  and  are 
sold  at  prices  out  of  proportion  to 'the  value  of  their  constituents,  with 
extravagant  claims  as  to  their  nutritive  and  curative  properties.  As 
foods  they  are  of  no  greater  value  than  the  common  feeds  of  which  they 
are  largely  composed,  while  as  tonics  they  are  counterparts  of  numerous 
patent  medicines  for  human  use. 

As  various  aromatic  substances  are  characteristic  ingredients,  they 
are  properly  considered  with  the  spices. 

The  Constituents  may  be  classed  under  three  heads :  (i)  food  materials ; 
(2)  spices,  including  fenugreek,  and  (3)  drugs. 

The  food  materials  include  a  number  of  common  feeds  of  greater  or 
lesser  value,  such  as  bran  and  other  by-products  of  wheat,  maize  meal, 
gluten  meal,  linseed  meal,  bean  meal,  carob-bean  meal,  malt  sprouts, 
cocoa  shells,  etc.  With  these  should  be  classed  salt,  ground  bone,  ground 
meat,  crushed  sea  shells  and  ground  quartz  (the  last  four  being  con- 
stituents of  poultry  foods),  all  of  which  are  useful  in  the  animal  economy. 

Of  the  spices  fenugreek  is  probably  the  most  extensively  employed, 
the  characteristic  odor  of  many  preparations  being  due  to  this  constituent. 
Ginger,  cayenne  pepper  and  mustard  hulls  are  also  common  ingredients, 
while  anise  and  fennel  are  stated  to  be  present  in  some  mixtures. 

The  drugs  are  partly  vegetable  and  partly  mineral. 

The  bitter  taste  of  most  of  the  mixtures  is  due  to  ground  gentian  root, 
the  cheapest  of  the  bitter  drugs,  although  wormwood  is  sometimes  em- 
ployed. Charcoal  serves  not  only  as  a  remedy,  but  also  to  give  the  mix- 
ture a  gray  color,  thus  concealing  other  constituents.  Licorice,  lobelia, 
bloodroot,  elecampane,  and  other  drugs  are  less  often  used. 

Among  the  mineral  drugs  reported  by  analysts  are  sulphur,  Epsom 
salts  (magnesium  sulphate),  Glauber's  salts  (sodium  sulphate),  potassium 
chlorate,  and  Venetian  red  (iron  oxide). 


500  SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 

METHODS  OF  EXAMINATION. 

Preliminary  Examination.  The  hints  given  under  cereal  cattle  foods 
(p.  59),  oil-seed  products  (p.  170),  and  spices  (p.  496)  apply  also  to  con- 
dimental  foods. 

Fenugreek,  ginger,  cayenne  pepper,  and  umbelliferous  seeds  are 
characterized  by  their  odor  and  taste;  gentian,  common  salt,  and  other 
salts  by  their  taste;  charcoal  and  Venetian  red  by  their  color;  ground 
quartz  by  its  gritty  nature. 

Vegetable  constituents  can  often  be  picked  out  for  microscopic  exami- 
nation, and  small  crystals  of  Epsom  and  Glauber's  salts,  lumps  of  sulphur, 
fragments  of  sea  shells  and  other  mineral  constituents,  for  chemical 
tests. 

Chemical  Examination.  Qualitative  Tests  are  made  for  chlorine 
(common  salt),  sulphuric  acid  (Epsom  and  Glauber's  salts),  magnesia 
(Epsom  salts),  carbonic  acid  (calcium  carbonate),  lime  (calcium  carbon-^ 
ate  and  phosphate),  phosphoric  acid  (calcium  phosphate),  iron  (Venetian 
red),  sulphur,  etc. 

These  tests  can  all  be  made  on  quite  small  particles  picked  out  from 
the  material.  Those  soluble  in  water  are  conveniently  dissolved  in  a 
minute  drop  of  water  and  a  drop  of  the  reagent  added  from  a  stirring 
rod.  In  this  way  we  can  detect  in  fragments  weighing  less  than  a  milli- 
gram, chlorine  by  silver  nitrate,  sulphuric  acid  by  barium  chloride,  mag- 
nesia by  sodium  phosphate.  Carbonic  acid  of  calcium  carbonate  is 
recognized  by  the  effervescence  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  while 
lime  is  detected  in  the  same  portion,  after  making  alkaline  with  ammonia, 
on  addition  of  ammonium  oxalate.  The  phosphoric  acid  of  bone  in  a 
nitric  acid  solution  gives  on  heating  with  ammonium  molybdate  solu- 
tion a  bright-yellow  precipitate.  Sulphur  burns  with  a  blue  flame 
giving  off  sulphurous  vapors.  Iron  is  best  detected  in  the  ash  by  its 
red-brown  color  and  the  red-brown  precipitate  of  ferric  hydrate  ob- 
tained after  dissolving  in  hydrochloric  acid  and  addition  of  ammonia. 
Powdered  charcoal  is  recognized  by  the  fact  that  it  is  not  bleached 
by  boiling  with  aqua  regia  or  a  mixture  of  potassium  chlorate  and  nitric 
acid,  also  by  the  gray  color  of  the  crude  fiber  obtained  by  the  usual 
process. 

Quantitative  Analyses.  The  usual  proximate  constituents  (water, 
ash,  protein,  crude  fiber,  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  fat,  or  rather  ether 
extract)  are  determined,  and  if  mineral  drugs  are  present  their  constitu- 

• 


CONDIMENTAL   CATTLE  AND  POULTRY  FOODS.  501 

ents  are  also  quantitatively  determined.  Carbonic  acid  is  determined 
in  the  original  material:  Chlorine  in  the  water  solution;  sulphuric  acid, 
and  magnesia,  either  in  the  water  solution  of  the  original  material  or  the 
acid  solution  of  the  ash;  phosphoric  acid,  calcium  oxide  and  iron  oxide 
in  the  acid  solution  of  the  ash,  and  sulphur  in  the  ether  extract  after 
oxidation  to  sulphate. 

Microscopic  Examination.  The  special  methods  described  on  pp.  497 
may  be  used  in  preparing  the  material  for  examination,  although  as  a 
rule  the  finely  ground  material  and  fragments  picked  out  under  a  lens 
may  be  suitably  examined  in  water,  and  again  after  treatment  with  iodine, 
alkali,  or  other  reagents. 

Cereal  products  are  recognized  by  the  characteristic  starch  grains 
and  the  tissues  of  the  bran  and  chaff;  starchy  leguminous  se?ds  by 
the  ellipsoidal  starch  grains  with  elongated  hilum,  also  by  the  tissues  of 
the  spermoderm;  linseed  meal  by  the  rectangular  pigment  cells  with 
deep  brown  contents,  and  yellow-brown  fragments  consisting  of  the 
superimposed  fibers  and  subepidermal  cells;  cottonseed  meal  by  the 
yellow  cell -contents  of  the  embryo,  the  brown  resin  particles  becoming 
red  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  remarkable  elements  of  the  black 
spermoderm. 

Fenugreek  is  usually  present  in  relatively  small  amount,  and  it  is 
often  a  tedious  search  to  find  fragments  showing  the  characteristic  pointed 
palisade  cells  and  the  broad  column  cells  with  ribs.  This  is  especially 
true  if  linseed  meal  is  present,  as  the  spermoderm  of  this  seed  is  also  of 
a  brown  color.  Of  some  aid  in  the  search  is  the  bright-yellow  color 
imparted  to  the  spermoderm  by  alkali. 

The  most  characteristic  elements  of  umbelliferous  seeds  are  the  oil 
ducts. 

Cayenne  is  identified  by  the  characteristic  rectangular  cells  of  the 
epicarp,  with  thick  yellow  walls,  the  intestine  cells  of  the  spermoderm,  and 
the  yellow  or  red  oil  drops. 

The  chief  elements  of  ginger  are  the  large  pear-shaped  starch  grains 
with  excentric  hilum,  although  the  reticulated  vessels  and  long  bast  fibers 
occur  in  small  amount. 

Gentian,  unfortunately,  has  no  characteristic  tissues,  but  in  the  absence 
of  ginger  the  reticulated  vessels,  coupled  with  the  bitter  taste,  furnish 
an  indication  of  its  presence. 

Charcoal  in  powder  form  appears  under  the  microscope  as  black 
opaque  particles,  which  are  not  affected  by  any  of  the  ordinary  reagents. 


502  SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 

These  particles  may  be  found  unchanged  in  the  crude  fiber  obtained 
by  the  ordinary  acid  and  alkaline  treatment,  also  in  the  residue  after 
bleaching,  as  already  described. 


PIPERACEOUS    FRUITS   (Piperacea). 

Black  pepper,  long  pepper,  and  cubebs  are  single-seeded  berries  with 
the  reserve  material  largely  in  the  bulky  perisperm. 

Hypodermal  stone  cells  of  the  usual  type  are  found  in  the  pericarp 
of  all  three  berries,  while  the  endocarp  of  each  is  characteristic  of  the 
species,  consisting  in  cubebs  of  several  layers  of  large  stone  cells,  in  black 
pepper,  of  a  single  layer  of  small  cells  thickened  in  the  inner  part  (beaker 
cells),  and  in  long  pepper  of  large  elongated  cells  with  moderately  thick 
walls.  In  all  three  species  very  small,  polygonal  starch  grains  fill  the 
cells  of  the  perisperm.  The  largest  grains  occur  in  long  pepper. 

PEPPER. 

Both  the  black  and  the  white  peppercorns  of  commerce  are  berries 
of  Piper  nigrum  L.,  a  climbing  perennial  indigenous  to  Malabar  and 
Travencore,  and  cultivated  in  Sumatra,  Siam,  Borneo,  Java,  Ceylon,  the 
Philippines,  and  tropical  America. 

The  vine  reaches  a  length  of  15  meters,  and  attaches  itself  to  trees, 
rocks,  or  trellises  by  means  of  aerial  roots  thrown  out  from  the  joints. 
The  inflorescence  is  in  spikes  up  to  10  cm.  long,  either  terminal,  or  oppo- 
site leaves,  bearing  20-50  flowers,  each  nearly  hidden  from  view  by  two 
bracts.  The  flowers  appear  in  May  or  June,  and  the  fruit,  a  one-seeded 
berry,  ripens  six  months  later,  changing  during  ripening  from  green  to 
red  and  finally  to  yellow. 

Black  peppercorns  are  the  green  berries  dried  without  shelling,  either 
in  the  sun  or  over  fires.  Owing  to  the  shrinking  of  -the  meat  during 
drying,  the  black  or  green  shell,  consisting  of  pericarp  and  spermoderm, 
is  strongly  wrinkled. 

White  peppercorns  are  the  berries,  picked  usually  when  fully  ripe, 
which  have  been  freed  from  the  outer  shell.  The  process  commonly 
employed  consists  in  soaking  the  berries  in  salt  water  or  lime  water, 
rubbing  off  the  shell  either  with  the  fingers  or  by  machinery,  and  drying; 


PEPPER.  503 

but  in  some  regions  the  shell  is  removed  dry.     The  corns  are  of  a  light 
gray  color,  and  while  not  so  pungent  as  black  pepper,  have  a  finer  flavor. 

Pepper  is  a  notable  example  of  a  seed  with  reserve  material  almost 
entirely  in  the  perisperm  (Fig.  428).  This  perisperm  forms  the  body 
of  the  seed,  and  has  a  cavity  in  the  center  one  mm. 
or  more  in  diameter  and  a  smaller  cavity  in  the 
apex  containing  traces  of  embryo  and  endosperm. 
The  outer  portion  of  the  perisperm  is  horny,  the 
inner  portion  floury. 

The  grades  of  pepper  on  the  market  are  desig- 
nated  according  to  their  places  of  growth,  oroftener     tudinal  section  of  fruit. 

,-,     .  e    1  •  n-  o-          m  i,.         -E  endosperm;    AT  peri- 

their  ports  of  shipment,  as  Singapore,  Siam,  Telli-     sperm;  FS  pericarp  and 


cherry,    Trang,    Lampong,   Acheen,   Penang,   etc.      $^^erm- 
Singapore  black  pepper,  one  of  the  best  grades,  is 

fire-dried,  and  consequently  has  a  smoky  odor  and  taste.  Most  of  the 
other  peppers,  being  sun-dried  on  the  ground,  do  not  have  this  quality,  but 
are  more  or  less  contaminated  with  stems,  earth,  small  stones,  and  in 
the  case  of  Acheen,  the  poorest  sort,  with  empty  and  light-weight  kernels. 
Acheen  pepper  is  sifted  free  of  coarse  shells  before  shipment  and  sepa- 
rated into  grades  A,  B,  C,  D,  according  to  the  specific  gravity;  but  the 
empty  or  light-weight  kernels  are  more  or  less  broken  up  during  the  sea 
voyage  and  handling,  so  that  the  product  is  invariably  contaminated  with 
more  or  less  shells.  Penang  white  pepper  is  coated  with  a  gray  substance 
consisting  chiefly  of  carbonate  of  lime. 

The  characteristic  constituents  of  pepper  are:  (i)  Piperine,  an  inert, 
non-  volatile,  crystalline  substance,  (5-8  per  cent)  ;  (2)  piperidine,  a  vola- 
tile alkaloid;  (3)  clavacin,  a  pungent  resin;  and  (4)  an  aromatic  vola- 
tile oil.  Starch  varies  up  to  40  per  cent  in  black  pepper  and  up  to  60  per 
cent  in  white  pepper. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Black  peppercorns,  sectioned  either  dry  or  after  soaking  in  water, 
serve  for  the  study  of  all  the  elements  of  the  fruit;  white  peppercorns 
for  all  the  elements  but  the  outer  pericarp.  Clearing  of  the  tissues  may 
be  effected  either  by  heating  with  dilute  alkali,  or  better  by  soaking  in 
Javelle  water. 

Pericarp  (Figs.  429  and  430).  To  the  naked  eye  the  pericarp  in  black 
pepper  is  black  or  gray-black  throughout,  but  in  white  pepper  all  that 
remains  of  the  pericarp,  namely  the  inner  layer,  is  light  gray. 


504  SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 

1.  The  Epicarp  (ep)  consists  of  polygonal  cells  (15-30  /JL)  and  occasional 
stomata,  covered  by  a  cuticle  5  /JL  thick.     In  the  dried  berries  the  contents 
are  dark  brown  or  black. 

2.  Hypoderm  (ast).     Small  thin- walled  cells,  intermingled  with  strongly 
thickened,  often  radially  elongated,  porous,  yellow  stone  cells,  form  the 
hypodermal  layer.      Both   forms  of    cells  often  contain  a    dark-brown 
material,  which  takes  on  a  reddish  color  with  alkali.     The  stone  cells 
vary  greatly  in  size  and  are  among  the  most  conspicuous  elements  of  the 
fruit,  but  are  of  course  absent  in  white  pepper,  while  pepper  shells,  removed 
in  the  preparation  of  white  pepper,  contain  them  in  extraordinarily  large 
numbers. 

3.  Outer  Mesocarp.     The  mesocarp  is  differentiated  into  four  more  or 
less  distinct  layers.     In  the  outer  layers  most  of  the  cells  are  of  moderate 
size,  and  contain  minute  starch  grains  or  chlorophyl;   but  here  and  there 
larger  cells  with  suberized  walls  contain  oil  or  resin.     This  is  the  innermost 
of  the  layers  removed  in  preparing  white  pepper. 

4.  Bundle  Layer  (fv).     In  the  next  layer,  consisting  of  smaller,  more 
or  less  compressed  cells,  ramify  the  nbro-vascular  bundles. 

5.  Oil  Cells  (p).     An  interrupted  layer  of  large  cells  with  suberized 
walls  and  oily  contents  is  evident  in  cross-section. 

6.  An  Inner  Mesocarp  of  thin-walled  but  porous  cells  completes  the 
pulpy  part  of  the  pericarp. 

7.  Endocarp  (ist).     Beaker  Cells,  so  called  because  of  their  thickened, 
sclerenchymatized  inner  and  radial  walls,  form  the  inner  stone  cell  layer 
or  endocarp.     As  seen  in  cross-section,  they  are  horseshoe-shaped  with 
distinct  pores.     Surface  preparations  are  also  characteristic,  the  double 
porous  walls  being  thinner  than  in  the  stone  cells  of  the  outer  layers. 

Spermoderm  (Figs.  429  and  430).  This  forms  a  thin  layer  of  little 
diagnostic  importance. 

i.  Outer  Epidermis  (is).  Vogl  and  some  other  authorities  cons'der 
the  elongated  cells  of  this  layer  as  belonging  to  the  spermoderm;  Tschirch 
and  Oesterle,  however,  who  have  studied  its  development,  believe  that 
it  is  a  portion  of  the  pericarp.  Its  connection  with  the  spermoderm  is 
best  seen  in  the  vicinity  of  the  micropyle,  where  the  cells  are  largest  and 
thickest-walled.  Over  the  body  of  the  seed  they  are  much  compressed  and 
are  scarcely  evident  except  after  heating  with  alkali,  or  bleaching  with 
Javelle  water,  washing  in  dilute  acetic  acid  and  staining.  This  latter 
treatment  not  only  causes  the  compressed  cells  to  assume  their  original 
shape,  but  also  greatly  swells  the  walls. 


PEPPER. 


5°5 


2.  Middle  Coat.     This  consists  of  one  or  two  layers  of  elongated  cells 
similar  to  those  of  the  epidermis. 


FIG.  429.  Black  Pepper.  Cross  section  of  outer  layers  of  fruit.  Pericarp  consists  of  ep 
epicarp,  ast  hypodermal  stone  cells,  oil  outer  mesocarp  with  oil  cells,  fv  bundle  zone, 
p  oil  cells,  and  ist  endocarp;  sperm oderm  consists  of  is  outer  epidermis,  and  inner  layers 
(not  shown) ;  perisperm  consists  of  al  aleurone  cells,  am  starch  masses,  res  resin  cells, 
and  pip  piperin  crystals.  (MOELLER.) 

3.  Pigment  Layer.     Owing  to  the  dark-brown  tannin  substance,  the 
elongated  cells    of  this  layer  are    conspicuous  both  in  cross  section  and 


5o6 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


surface  view,  although  their  cell-structure  is  not  clearly  seen  except  after 
treatment  with  alkali  or  some  other  reagent.  Under  favorable  conditions 
the  walls  appear  distinctly  beaded.  Iron  salts  impart  a  blue  color  to  the 
contents. 

Perisperm  (Figs.  429  and  430).     i.  Hyaline  Layer.     This  is  evident 
in  cross  section  as  a  hyaline  band  inclosing  not  only  the  inner  layers  of 

om      ^^ 

ep 


ist— 


FIG.  430.  Black  Pepper.  Elements  of  powder,  ep  epicarp;  ast  hypodermal  stone  cells; 
bf  bast  fibers;  bp  bast  sclerenchyma;  sp  vessels;  p  oil  cells;  ist  endocarp;  is,  as  layers 
of  spermoderm;  am  starch  masses.  Xi6o.  A  starch  grains,  X6oo.  (MOELLER.) 

the  perisperm,  but  also  the  embryo  and  endosperm  at  the  end  of  the  seed. 
As  it  does  not  show  evidences  of  being  pierced  by  the  micropyle,  it  is 
here  classed  with  the  perisperm.  Evidences  of  the  cellular  structure 
appear  on  treatment  of  cross  sections  with  alkali.  In  surface  view  the 
cells  are  elongated  polygonal  with  thin  walls. 

2.  Aleurone  Cells  (al).  Macroscopic  examinations  of  a  kernel  cut  in 
half  show  that  the  outer  portion  is  horny,  while  the  inner  portion,  sur- 
rounding the  central  cavity,  is  mealy.  If  cross  sections  are  treated  with 
iodine  solution  and  examined  under  the  microscope,  it  is  evident  that  the 
cells  of  the  two  or  more  outer  layers  are  small  and  contain  aleurone 
grains,  but  no  starch. 


PEPPER.  507 

3.  Starch  Cells  (am).  The  inner  portion  of  the  perisperm  consists 
of  large,  radially  elongated  cells,  up  to  150/1  long,  filled  with  masses 
of  minute  starch  grains  embedded  in  proteid  matter.  The  starchy  con- 
tents of  the  inner  cells  separate  as  compact  masses  conforming  to  the 
shape  of  the  cells,  in  which  are  evident  not  only  the  individual  grains,  but 
sometimes  also  oval  aggregates  of  grains  such  as  occur  in  rice  and  oats. 
Pepper  starch  grains  are  among  the  smallest  ifrtke  vegetable  kingdom, 
being  usually  2-4  /*  in  diameter  and  never  exceeding  6  /*.  They  are 
polygonal  or  rounded  and  have  an  evident  hilum.  Strikingly  different  from 
the  polygonal  cells  containing  aleurone  grains  and  starch  are  the  rounded 
resin  cells  (res)  distributed  here  and  there  among  these.  In  these  are  con- 
tained yellow  globules  of  oil,  also  lumps  of  resinous  matter,  and  often 
needle-shaped  crystals  of  piperin  (pip).  These  latter  are  seen  in  greater 
numbers  after  mounting  in  alcohol,  allowing  the  alcohol  to  evaporate 
slowly,  and  remounting  in  water.  The  piperin  is  soluble  in  alcohol  and 
ether,  but  insoluble  in  water.  If  sections  are  placed  in  a  drop  of 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid  a  deep-red  solution  is  obtained. 

Endosperm  and  Embryo  are  minute  and  are  of  no  diagnostic  importance. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Black  Pepper,  although  prepared  from  the  green  berry,  contains  all 
the  microscopic  elements  of  the  fruit  in  practically  full  development.  Of 
greatest  importance  in  identification  are  the  outer  stone  cells  (Fig.  430, 
asf),  the  beaker  cells  (ist),  and  the  masses  (am)  consisting  of  minute  starch 
grains  (A).  Sulphuric  acid  dissolves  the  piperin  to  a  deep-red  solution, 
but  other  members  of  the  genus  give  the  same  reaction,  and  its  value  is 
further  impaired  by  the  fact  that  similar  red  solutions  are  obtained  with 
cottonseed  and  other  products. 

Ground  Black  Pepper,  since  it  contains  both  the  dark  tissues  of  the 
pericarp  and  spermoderm  and  the  light -colored  starchy  perisperm,  is  of  a 
dark-gray  or  brown-gray  color.  It  is  more  pungent  than  white  pepper, 
although  the  natural  flavor  is  often  mingled  with  an  earthy  or,  in  the  case 
of  fire-dried  varieties,  with  a  smoky  flavor. 

The  adulterants  of  pepper  are  probably  more  numerous  and  varied 
than  those  of  any  other  food  product,  not  excepting  coffee.  They  include 
linseed  meal,  buckwheat  hulls,  nutshells  (cocoanut,  walnut,  almond, 
hazelnut,  etc.),  mustard  hulls,  screenings,  charcoal,  cereal  products, 
peas  and  other  leguminous  seeds,  poppy  seeds,  olive  stones,  sawdust, 
cocoa  shells,  pepper  hulls,  mineral  diluents  and  colors,  exhausted  pepper, 


508 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


exhausted  spices, — in  fact  any  waste  material  with  a  not  too  pro- 
nounced flavor  that  can  be  easily  reduced  to  a  powder.  It  is  a  common 
practice  to  mix  light-  and  dark-colored  adulterants  in  order  to  better 
imitate  the  color  of  the  genuine  product,  and  also  to 
add  a  little  cayenne  pepper  to  give  pungency  to 
fraudulent  mixtures  which  otherwise  would  be 
nearly  tasteless.  Nutshells,  sawdust,  buckwheat 
hulls,  cocoa  shells,  pepper  shells,  and  other  fibrous 
or  woody  materials  have  much  higher  amounts  of 
crude  fiber  but  less  starch  than  genuine  pepper, 
j^.^  while  the  reverse  is  true  of  most  starchy  adulterants. 

Mint        fig--)       ^^e  et^6r  extract  °^  PePPer  consists  largely  of  pip- 
**^  *       erin,  a  nitrogenous  substance,  whereas  the  extract 
of  some  of  the  adulterants  contains  no  appreciable 
amounts  of  nitrogen.     As  Acheen  pepper  contains 
a  considerable    amount  of    loose  shells  and  conse- 
quently a  high  percentage  of  ash  and  fiber,  it  is 
frequently  not  possible  either  by  microscopic  exami- 
1    fromC    spindle,  nation    or    chemical    analysis    to    distinguish    this 
(MOELLER.)  grade   in    powder  form  from  a  better  grade  adul- 

terated with  pepper  shells.  Legal  standards  of  composition  are  designed 
to  exclude  pepper  unfit  for  consumption,  whether  ground  from  a  very 
low  grade  of  berry  or  willfully  mixed  with  shells. 

White  Pepper  is  usually  prepared  from  the  ripe  berry,  the  globular 
corns,  although  deprived  of  the  outer  layers  of  the  pericarp,  being  usually 
somewhat  larger  than  black  peppercorns  and  free  from  wrinkles.  They 
are  light  gray,  lusterless,  and  delicately  veined  with  the  pericarp  bundles. 
Penang  white  pepper  is  coated  with  a  gray  substance  consisting  largely 
of  carbonate  of  lime.  The  portion  of  the  pericarp  removed  consists  of 
the  epicarp,  the  hypodermal  stone  cells,  and  the  outer  mesocarp  up  to 
the  bundles.  Except  for  these  layers,  the  microscopic  elements  are  the 
same  as  in  black  pepper,  any  difference  due  to  degree  of  ripeness  being 
too  slight  for  detection.  As  the  powder  is  of  a  light -gray  color,  the  adul- 
terants used  are  light-colored  materials,  such  as  wheat  flour,  maize  meal, 
ground  rice,  buckwheat  flour,  and  various  other  cereal  products,  ground 
peas  and  other  legumes,  white  poppy  seeds,  ground  olive  stones,  cayenne 
pepper,  also  gypsum  and  other  white  mineral  substances.  Cereal  adul- 
terants do  not  greatly  alter  the  percentage  of  starch,  but  are  readily  de- 
tected by  the  characters  of  the  starch  granules  and  the  tissues.  Olive 


PEPPER. 


stones  increase  the  crude  fiber  and  diminish  the  starch.  White  and 
black  pepper  are  both  characterized  by  the  nitrogen  of  the  ether  extract, 
due  to  piperin. 

Decorticated  White  Pepper,  consisting  of  peppercorns  deprived  of  all 
the  coats  of  the  pericarp  and  spermoderm,  is  made  from  black  pepper  in 
machines  of  special  construction.  The  powder  is  light  yellow,  of  a  deli- 
cate fragrance,  and  contains,  in  appreciable  amount,  only  the  elements 
of  the  perisperm.  Because  of  the  lack  of  other  elements,  adulteration 
is  the  more  readily  detected. 

Pepper  Shells,  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  white  pepper,  being 
cheap,  pungent,  and  difficult  of  detection,  are  frequently  mixed  with 
ground  black  pepper.  They  show  a  preponderance  of  stone  cells  under 
the  microscope,  and  contain  a  high  percentage  of  fiber  and  ash,  the  latter 
being  due  largely  to  adhering  dirt. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Berg  (3);  Blyth  (5);  Fluckiger  (n); 
Greenish  (14);  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (10,  16);  Hassall  (19);  Leach  (25);  Mace  (26); 
Moeller  (29,  30,  31,  32);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Schimper  (37);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle 
(40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (43,  45). 

ANDOUARD:   Falsification  du  poivre  par  le  Galanga.     Jour,  pharm.  chim.  1890,  21,  585. 
BEYTHIEN:    Ueber  Gewiirze.     Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm.  1903,  6,  957. 
BERTARELLI:  Verfalschtmg  von  weissen  Pfefferkornern.    Atti  della  Societa  Piemontese 

d'Igiene.   1900-01,  7. 

BERTSCHINGER  :  Kunstliche  Pfefferkorner.     Schw.  Woch.  Chem.  Pharm.  1901,  39,  215, 
BONNET:  Du  poivre  et  de  ses  falsifications.     These  E.  de  Ph.  de  Paris.  1886,  19. 
BROWN:   On  Another  New  Pepper  Adulterant.     Analyst.  1887,  12,  89. 
BRUNOTTI:    Des  fruits  utiles  des  Piperitees.     These  d'agregation.  Concours,  1889,  31. 
CHEVREAU:  Recherche  de  la  falsification  du  poivre  par  le  grignon  d'olives  au  moyen 

des  sels  d'aniline.     Rep.  de  Pharm.  1889,  17,  203. 

DAELS:  Falsification  du  poivre  blanc  en  poudre.     Journ.  Pharm.  d'Anvers.  1904,  60,  i. 
GILLET:  Method  nouvelle  pour  reconnaitre  la  falsification  des  poivres  par  addition  de 

grignons  d'olives.     Bull.  soc.  chim.  1888,  50,  173. 
GLADHILL:  Commercial  Pepper.     Amer.  Jour.  Pharm.  1904,  76,  71. 
GRIMALDI:  Sopra  una  falsificazione  del  pepe  in  grani.     Staz.  sperim.  agrar.  Ital.  1901, 

H  705- 

HANAUSEK,  E.:  Schwarzer  Tellicherrypfeffer.     Ztschr.  Nahr. -Unters.  Hyg.  1888,  2,  5. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Ueber  die  Harz-  und  Oelraume  in  der  Pfefferfrucht.     Sep.-Abdr. 

aus  Programm  der  k.  k.  Staatsrealschule  am  Schottenfelde,  Wien,  1886. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Ueber  die  Matta.     Ztschr.  Nahr. -Unters,  Hyg.  1887,  1,  24. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Kiinstlicher  Pfeffer.     Ztschr.  allg.  osterr.  Apoth.-Ver.  1887,  12,  180. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:    Im  Budapester  Handel  beobachtete   Pfefferfalschungen.     Ztschr. 

Nahr. -Unters.  Hyg.  1889,  3,  33,  58. 


5io  SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 

HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Kunstliche  Pfefferkorner.  Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1889,  3,  31. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Die  Pfefferfruchtspindeln.  Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1889,  3,  59. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Ueber  einige,  gegenwartig  im  Wiener  Handel  Vorkommende 

Gewiirzfalschimgen.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1894,  8,  95. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Ueber  den  schwaizen  Pfeffer  von  Mangalore.     Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.- 

Genussm.  1898,  1,  153. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Ueber  eine  neue  Pfefferfalschung.     Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm. 

1898,  1,  490. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:   Olivenkerne  und  ihre  Erkennung  im  Pfefferpulver.     Pharm.  Cen- 

tralh.  1885,  25,  261. 
HUBERT:  Moyen  facile  et  rapide  de  reconnaitre  la  falsification  du  poivre.     Journ. 

pharm.  chim.  1891,  23,  283. 
JUMEAU:  Note  sur  les  falsification  du  poivre  en  poudre.     Journ.  pharm.  chim.  1889, 

20,  442. 

KUNDRAT:  Das  neueste  Verfalschungsmittel  fur  Pfeffer.  Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg. 
1895,  9,  104. 

LANDRIN:  Falsification  du  poivre  a  1'aide  des  grignons  d' olive.     Jour.  Pharm.  19,  194. 

MAINSBRECQ:  Falsification  du  poivre.     Bull.  Assoc.  Beige  Chim.  1901,  15,  335. 

MARTELLI:  Nachweis  der  Verfaschungen  des  gemahlenen  Pfeffers.  Ztschr.  Nahr.- 
Unters.  Hyg.  1895,  9,  205. 

MENNECHET:  Sur  une  falsification  du  poivre  par  les  fruits  du  Myrsine  Africana  L.  et 
Embelia  ribes  Burm.  Jour,  pharm.  chim.  1901,  14,  557. 

MEYER,  ARTHUR:  Die  mikroskopische  Untersuchung  von  Pflanzenpulver,  speziell  tiber 
den  Nachweis  von  Buchweizenmehl  in  Pfefferpulver  und  liber  die  Unterscheidung 
des  Maismehls  von  dem  Buchweizenmehl.  Arch.  Pharm.  1883,  21,  911. 

MOELLER:    Ein  neues  Verfalschungsmittel  fiir  Pfeffer.     Rep.  anal.  Chem.  1886,  409. 

MOELLER:  Matta.     Pharm.  Post,  1886,  365. 

MOLINARI:  Nachweis  von  Olivenkernen  im  Pfeffer.     Rev.  chim.  anal.  appl.  1898,  6,  6. 

MORPURGO:  Delle  Spezie.     Trieste,  1904. 

NESTLER:  Ueber  Verfalschungen  von  Macis,  Pfeffer  und  Safran.  Ztschr.  Unters. 
Nahr:  Genussm.  1903,  6,  1033. 

NEUSS:   Zur  Pfefferuntersuchung.     Pharm.  Ztg.  1885,  30,  26. 

PABST:  Nachweis  einer  Pfefferfalschung  durch  Olivenkerne  mittels  Anilinsalzen.  Rev. 
internat.  falsificat.  1889,  3,  8. 

PABST:  Recherches  des  grignons  d'olives  dans  le  poivre.     Journ.  pharm.  chim.  1890, 

21,  645. 

PAOLINI:     Sopra  una  nuova  falsificazione  del  pepe  comune.     Staz.    sperim.  agrar.  Ital. 

1901,  34,  966. 
PEINEMANN:  Beitrage  zur  pharmakognostischen  und  chemischen  Kenntniss  der  Cube  ben 

und    der   als    Verfalschung    derselben    beobachteten  Piperaceenfriichte.      Arch. 

Pharm.  1896,  234,  204. 

PLANCHON:  Note  sur  le  poivre  et  les  grignons  d'olive.  Jour,  pharm.  chim.  1885, 11,  641. 
RAU:  Ueber  neuere  Verfalschungen  des  gemahlenen  Pfeffers.  Ztschr.  offentl.  Chem. 

1900,  6,  243. 
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Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm.  1902,  5,  409. 


PEPPER.  LONG  PEPPER.  511 

RIMMINGTON:  Pepper  Adulteration  and  Pepper  Analysis.    Analyst.  1888,  13,  81. 
SPAETH:  Ueber  ein  neues  Verfalschungsmittel  des  gemahlenen  Pfeffers.     Forschber. 

Lebensm.  Hyg.  1893,  1>  37- 
TEYXEIRA  E  FERRUCCIO:    Pepe  naturale  ed  artificiale.     Boll.  Chim.  Farm.  1900, 

39,  534- 

UHL:  Zur  Untersuchung  des  Pfeffers.     Forschungsb.  Lebensm.  Hyg.  1886,  127. 
WENDER:  Kunstpfeffer.    Ztschr.  allg.  osterr.  Apoth.-Ver.  1887,  25,  145. 

LONG    PEPPER. 

Two  species  yield  the  long  pepper  of  commerce,  Piper  officinarum 
DC.,  grown  in  Java,  the  Philippines,  India,  and  other  parts  of  the  East 
and  P.  longum  L.,  sparingly  cultivated  in  India,  the  former  species  being 
by  far  the  most  important. 

The  inflorescence  is  in  a  dense  spike  which  ripens  into  a  dark-gray 
or  black  compound  elongated  catkin-like  fruit  consisting  of  numerous 
consolidated  berries.  The  surface  bears  spiral  rows  of  small  protuber- 
ances, which  are  the  exposed  outer  ends  of  the  individual  berries.  Each 
compound  fruit  is  2-6  cm.  long  and  4-7  mm.  broad  in  the  case  of  P.  offici- 
narum, somewhat  shorter  and  thicker  in  the  case  of  P.  longum. 

HISTOLOGY. 

After  soaking  over  night  in  water,  the  compound  fruit  is  in  excellent 
condition  for  cutting  longitudinal  and  transverse  sections,  corresponding 
respectively  to  transverse  and  longitudinal  sections  of  the  individual 
berries.  These  sections  should  be  soaked  in  Javelle  water  to  swell  out 
the  layers  of  the  spermoderm  and  stained. 

Pericarp.  Owing  to-  the  consolidation  of  the  lower  portions  of  adjoin- 
ing pericarps,  the  epicarp  and  hypoderm  are  developed  only  on  the  outer 
end  of  each  individual. 

1.  The  Epicarp  is  of  polygonal  cells  with  no  distinctive  characters. 

2.  Hypodermal  Stone  Cells  do  not  form  a  continuous  layer,  but  are 
scattered  here  and  there  through  the  outer  cell  layers.     A  few  of  these 
stone  cells  also  occur  in  the  middle  layers  of  the  consolidated  pericarp 
tissue. 

3.  The  Outer  Mesocarp,  composed  of  parenchyma  cells  (no  oil  cells), 
contains  numerous  small  starch  grains  and  traces  of  chlorophyl. 

4.  Inner  Mesocarp.     The  mesocarp  cells  show  little  differentiation  up 
to  the  inner  two  or  three  layers,  where  they  grade  into  the  sclerenchy- 
matized,   thickened,   porous   cells   of  the  endocarp.     This   transition  is 


512  SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 

brought  out  by  safranin  after  bleaching  with  Javelle  water.     The  inner 
layers  contain  no  starch  and  are  none  of  them  typical  oil  cells. 

5.  Endocarp.     Most   characteristic  of  all   the   tissues   are   the  large, 
longitudinally  el6ngated,  porous,  sclerenchyma  cells  of  this  layer,  which 
are  radically  different    from    the    small    beaker    cells  of    pepper  or  the 
strongly  thickened  stone   cells   of  cubebs.     They  form  striking  objects 
in  tangential  or  surface  sections,  especially  after  staining,  and  in  trans- 
verse or  longitudinal  section  are  conspicuous  because  of  the  thickened 
inner  walls  and  the  decrease  in  thickness  of  the  radial  walls  from  within 
outward. 

6.  An  Inner  Layer  of  beaded  cells  with  slightly  undulating  walls  may 
be  found  by  examining  the  inner  surface  or  the  fragments  obtained  by 
scraping.     These  cells  or  their  inner  portions  also  occur  on  the  spermo- 
derm.     It  is  probable  that  this  layer  belongs   to  the  pericarp  and  corre- 
sponds to  the  cells  Tschirch  and  Oesterle  find  in  unripe  black  pepper. 
Those  cells  of  ripe  black  pepper  which  they  regard  as  these  pericarp 
cells  in  a  later  stage  of  development  appear  to  belong  to  the  spermo- 
derm. 

Spermoderm.  Cross-sections  •  show  little  detail  until  treated  with 
Javelle  water,  after  which  the  structure  is  clearly  analogous  to  that  of 
black  pepper  and  cubebs. 

1.  The  Outer  Epidermis,  as  may  be  seen  after  treating  either  cross- 
sections   or   surface  preparations   as   described,   has   swollen  outer   and 
radial  walls  even  more  striking  than  those  of  black  pepper  and  cubebs. 
Surface  preparations  show  that  the  cells  are  longitudinally  elongated, 
12-20  /JL  broad. 

2.  The  Middle  Coat,  consisting  mostly  of  one  or  two  layers,  but  at  the 
base  of  a  number  of  layers,  has  cells  with  swollen  walls  much  like  those 
of  the  outer  epidermis. 

3.  The  Pigment  Cells  are  readily  found  in  transverse  or  surface  sec- 
tions, and  after  removal  of  the  pigment  by  Javelle  water,  are  seen  to  be 
distinctly  reticulated,  the  radial  walls  appearing  beaded  in  surface  view. 

Perisperm.  I.  Hyaline  Layer.  The  swollen,  structureless  outer 
membrane,  the  so-called  "hyaline  layer"  regarded  by  many  authors 
as  the  inner  spermoderm,  is  the  same  as  is  found  in  pepper  and  other 
members  of  the  genus. 

2.  The  Aleurone  Cells  are  small  and  contain  little  or  no  starch. 

3.  Starch  Parenchyma,  with  no  evidence  of  oil  cells,  form  the  inner 
perisperm.     The  polygonal  or  rounded  starch  grains  vary  from  2-10  /*, 


LONG   PEPPER.     CUBEBS.  513 

being  usually  about  4  //,  or  a  little  larger  than  those  of  black  pepper. 
Concentrated  sulphuric  acid  produces  a  deep  carmine  color  due  to  piperin. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Long  pepper  has  been  repeatedly  detected  by  English  analysts  as  an 
adulterant  or  substitute  for  black  pepper.  It  is  distinguished  by  the 
somewhat  larger  starch  grains,  and  especially  by  the  large,  elongated, 
moderately  sclerenchymatized  cells  of  the  endocarp,  and  the  absence 
of  beaker  cells  and  oil  cells.  The  powder  also  has  a  distinctive  odor. 

CUBEBS. 

Cubebs,  the  fruit  of  a  vine  (Piper  Cubeba  L.),  although  properly  classed 
with  the  drugs,  are  of  interest  to  the  food  microscopist  because  they  are 
analogous  in  structure  to  the  fruits  of  black  and  long  pepper.  At  the 
present  time  cubebs  are  seldom  used  as  spices,  but  the  exhausted  berries 
are  sometimes  mixed  with  black  pepper  as  an  adulterant. 

The  plant  grows  in  Sumatra,  Java,  and  other  islands  of  the  East  Indies. 

The  dark-brown,  wrinkled  berry  is  about  the  same  size  as  a  black 
peppercorn,  which  it  further  resembles  in  morphological  structure.  Unlike 
black  pepper,  the  berry  is  borne  on  a  stem  6-8  mm.  long,  and  the  seed, 
often  only  partially  developed,  is  not  united  with  the  sides  of  the  peri- 
carp. Among  the  constituents  are  volatile  aromatic  principles,  and  cube- 
bin,  a  non-volatile  crystalline  substance  related  to  piperin. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Although  cubeb  and  pepper  berries  are  analogous  in  microscopic 
structure,  certain  of  the  elements  are  strikingly  different. 

Pericarp,  i.  The  Epicarp  of  small  polygonal  cells  is  hardly  dis-. 
tinguishable  from  the  corresponding  coat  of  pepper,  although  the  cell- 
contents  are  usually  of  a  lighter  color. 

2.  The  Hypodermal  Stone  Cells,  24-40  fi  in  diameter,  are  not  usually 
radially  elongated  and  are  for  the  most  part  in  a  single  layer. 

3.  The  Outer  Mesocarp  is   composed  of  parenchyma  cells   contain- 
ing small   starch  granules    (2-6  //)  and   oil  cells  containing   crystals   of 
cubebin  in  addition  to  fatty  matter. 

4.  Compressed  Cells  form  that  portion  of  the  mesocarp  through  which 
ramify  the  bundles. 


5I4  SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 

5.  The  Inner  Mesocarp  of  several  layers  of  parenchyma  cells  inter- 
spersed with  oil  cells  contains  no  starch  grains. 

6.  The  Endocarp,  or  inner  stone -cell  layer,  is  much  more  strongly 
developed  than  the  corresponding  beaker  cells  of  pepper.     It   consists 
of  one  or  more   layers  of  large  isodiametric  or  radially   elongated  stone 
cells  (often  80  /*)  with  walls  thickened  on  all  sides. 

7.  An  Inner  Layer  of  irregular  cells  lies  between  the  endocarp  and 
spermoderm.     In  cross-section  this  layer  is  scarcely  distinguishable,  but 
on  examining  the  inner  surface  of  the  pericarp  or  the  outer  surface  of 
the  spermoderm,  the  thin  beaded  side  walls  are  clearly  evident. 

Spermoderm.  Cross-sections  show  the  same  number  of  layers  as  is 
found  in  black  pepper. 

1.  Outer  Epidermis.    The  longitudinally  elongated  cells,  often  150- 
200  fjL  long  and  25-50  /*  wide,  are  much  larger  than  any  of  the  elements 
of  the  spermoderm  of  pepper.  In  surface  view  they  are  recognized,  after 
heating  with  alkali  or  after  bleaching  with  Javelle  water  and  staining 
with  safranin,  by  their  size,  more  or  less  rectangular  form,  and  swollen 
brown  walls  (double  walls  10-15  /*). 

2.  A  Middle  Coat  of  one  or  two  cell  layers  is  present  in  most  parts 
of  the  seed.     The  narrow  cells  are  elongated  and  the  walls  are  swollen 
after  treatment  with  the  reagents  named. 

3.  Inner  Epidermis.     Irregular  cells,  often  longitudinally  elongated, 
with  walls  of  even  thickness  or  faintly  beaded,  form  a  dark-brown  pig- 
ment layer  not  unlike  the  corresponding  cells  of  both  black  and  long 
pepper.     Like  these  latter,  as  may  be  seen  in  longitudinal  section,  they 
are  tabular  except  near  the  micropyle,  where  they  are  radially  elongated. 

Perisperm.  i .  A  Hyaline  Layer  forms  a  thickened,  apparently  struc- 
tureless membrane  enclosing  the  perisperm,  the  embryo,  and  endosperm; 
the  two  latter  being  situated  in  a  small  hollow  at  the  apex. 

2.  Aleurone  Cells  constitute  several  outer  layers. 

3.  Starch  Parenchyma  intermingled  with  yellow-green  oil  cells  make 
up  the  heart  of  the  perisperm.    The  starch  grains  are  rounded  or  polyg- 
onal, 3-12  /j.  in  diameter,  and  are  closely  packed  in  the  cells.     Sections 
mounted  in  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  take  on  a  deep  carmine  color. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  powder  is  distinguished  from  ground  pepper  by  the  larger  starch 
grains,  the  presence  of  large  stone  cells  in  place  of  beaker  cells,  and  the 
large  cells  of  the  middle  spermoderm.  The  elements  of  the  stem  are 


CUBEBS.     PAPRIKA.  5 1 5 

also  present,  the  large  sclerenchymatized  bast  parenchyma  being  espe- 
cially noteworthy. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Berg  (3);  Meyer,  A.  (27);  Moeller  (31,  32); 
Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40). 
DEWE"RE:  Recherches  sur  le  cubebe,  etc.     Ann.  Soc.  roy.  sci.  med.  nat.  de  Bruxelles, 

1894,  3. 
HARTWICH:    Weitere  Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  der  Cubeben.     Arch.  Pharm.  1898,  236, 

172. 

HARTWICH:  Cubeba  Real-Enzykl.  d.  ges.  Pharm.  2  Aufl.  IV,  1905. 
PEINEMANN:  Beitrage  zur  pharmakognostischen  und  chemischen  Kenntniss. der  Cubeben 

und    der    als    Verfalschung    derselben    beobachteten    Piperaceenfriichte.     Arch 

Pharm.  1896,  234,  204. 

VOGL:   Falsche  Cubeben.     Pharm.  Centralh.  1895,  36,  n. 
WEVRE:   Ueber  Cubeben  und  ihre  Verfalschungen.     Apoth.-Ztg.  1895,  10,  345. 

SOLANACEOUS    FRUITS    (Solanacea). 

Cayenne  pepper  and  paprika,  the  two  species  of  capsicum  used  as 
spices,  are  characterized  by  the  sclerenchyma  cells  of  the  epicarp  and 
endocarp,  the  yellow  or  red  oil  drops  of  the  mesocarp,  and  the  curious 
intestine  cells  of  the  sperrrioderm.  Starch  in  appreciable  amount  is 
absent. 

PAPRIKA. 

Various  species  of  the  genus  Capsicum  yield  pungent  fruits  widely 
different  in  form,  size,  and  color,  which  serve  both  for  seasoning  food  and 
in  medicine.  Throughout  the  Continent,  the  large  fruit  of  C.  annuum  L., 
known  as  paprika,  also  as  Hungarian,  Spanish,  Turkish,  or  Indian  pepper, 
are  chiefly  used;  in  England  and  America  the  small  but  exceedingly 
pungent  peppers  of  C.  jastigiatum  Bl.  and  C.  frutescens  L.,  are  more  highly 
prized  for  grinding,  although  peppers  of  numerous  varieties  of  C.  annuum 
are  grown  for  pickling  either  green  or  ripe. 

Paprika  is  cultivated  in  Hungary,  Spain,  Italy,  France,  and  Turkey. 
The  red  or  yellow  shining  fruit,  appearing  as  if  lacquered,  is  inflated, 
5-10  cm.  long,  and  from  half  to  three-fourths  as  broad.  The  pericarp, 
even  before  drying,  is  but  a  few  millimeters  thick,  the  bulk  of  the  fruit 
consisting  of  the  fruit  cavity  divided  at  the  base  into  two  or  three  com- 
partments. Numerous  flattened  seeds  (3-5  mm.),  shaped  much  like  the 
human  ear,  are  borne  in  the  lower  part  of  the  fruit  on  the  central  placenta, 
and  in  the  upper  part  on  the  partitions  which  here  only  extend  part  way  to 


SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 

the  center.  The  embryo,  with  a  long  radicle  and  still  longer,  narrow 
cotyledons,  is  coiled  within  the  endosperm  in  such  a  way  that  the  radicle 
points  toward  the  elongated  (2  mm.)  hilum.  The  hollow  stem,  3-4  mm. 
in  diameter,  and  the  small,  green,  pentagonal  or  hexagonal  calyx  aie  at- 
tached to  the  dried  fruit  as  found  on  the  market. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Any  of  the  large  garden  peppers  or  the  dried  whole  paprika  fruit 
may  be  employed  for  studying  the  histology. 

The  Fruit  Stem  (Fig.  432)  has  an  epidermis  and  outer  cortical  layer, 
like  the  corresponding  layers  of  the  calyx  in  structure.  Wood  elements 


FIG.  432.  Paprika  (Capsicum  an-  FIG.  433.  Paprika.  Surface  view  of  calvx  show- 
nuum)  Elements  of  stem,  b  ing  outer  epidermis  with  st  stoma,  and  >  spongy 
bast  nber;  bp  bast  parenchyma;  parenchyma.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER  ) 

/  wood    fibers;    hp  wood    paren- 
chyma; g  pitted  vessels.     Xi6o. 

(MOELLER.) 

form  a  continuous  hollow  cylinder  surrounded  by  a  narrow,  interrupted 
bast  ring.  The  elements  of  the  wood,  consisting  of  pitted  and  reticulated 
vessels,  libriform  fibers,  and  wood  parenchyma,  are  strongly  thickened, 
while  the  bast  contains  a  characteristic  element  in  the  form  of  broad  (up 
to  5°  /*)»  flexible  fibers  with  wide  cavities. 


PAPRIKA. 


517 


Calyx.     Sections  of  the  dry  material  swell  considerably  in  water,  dis- 
playing an  uncommonly  large-celled  tissue. 

1.  The  Outer  Epidermis  (Fig.  433),  as  seen  in   surface  view,  consists 
of  large,  flat,  moderately  thick-walled,  sharply-polygonal  cells,  with  a  few 
stomata. 

2.  Mesophyl  (Fig.  434).     Adjoining  the  outer  epidermis  is  a  single 
layer  of  cells  in  close  contact  with  each  other,  and  a  similar  layer  adjoins 
the  inner  epidermis,  but  in  the  middle  layers  the  cells  are  larger  and  thinner- 


FlG    434      Paprika       /  cross  section  of  calyx  showing  /  hairs  of  inner  (upper)  epidermis 
1  'and  'gfb  fibre-vascular  bundle.     II  inner  (upper)  epidermis  of  calyx,  in  surface  view. 
(TSCHIRCH  and  OESTERLE.) 

walled,  forming  a  spongy  parenchyma.  Through  the  inner  layers  run 
the  nbro-vascular  bundles.  Chlorophyl  is  present  in  the  hypodermal 
layers,  but  not  in  the  spongy  parenchyma. 

3.  The  Inner  Epidermis  (Fig.  434)  has  moderately  large  cells  with  wavy 
walls  but  no  stomata.  Characteristic  are  the  peculiar  glandular  hairs. 
These  are  short,  two  or  more  celled,  with  single  or  compound  end  cells 
containing  red-brown  resinous  bodies.  Noteworthy  is  the  fact  that  they 
are  not,  like  most  hairs,  simply  epidermal  cells  prolonged  beyond  the 
surface,  but  they  spring  from  the  middle  of  much  broader  cells  after  the 
manner  of  root -hairs. 

Pericarp,  Outer  Wall.     In  cutting  sections,  the  material  should  be 


5*8 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


held  between  pieces  of  pith  or  embedded  in  paraffine  and  care  taken  to 
avoid  tearing  away  the  inner  layers. 

i.  Epicarp  (Fig.  435,  epi;  Fig.  436).  This  layer,  in  cross-section, 
has  a  cuticularized  and  thickened  outer  wall  15-20  jy.  thick.  In  surface 
view  the  cells  are  polygonal,  moderately  thin- walled  (double  walls  3-8  /*) 


_  epi 


mes 


end 


FIG.  435.     Paprika.     Pericarp  in  cross  section,     epi  epicarp;   mes  mesocarp  with  oil  glo- 
bules, and  fv  fibro- vascular  bundle;    g  giant  cells;    end  endocarp.     (MOELLER.) 

beaded,   45-95  /*  in  diameter.     They  are   not,   as   in   Cayenne  pepper, 
rectangular  and  arranged  in  rows. 

2.  Hypoderm.  Several  layers  of  collenchyma  further  distinguish 
paprika  from  Cayenne  pepper.  As  was  first  shown  by  Molisch,  the  walls 
of  these  layers,  as  well  as  of  the  epicarp,  are  suberized,  and  become  yellow 
with  alkali.  Contained  in  both  the  hypoderm  and  mesocarp  in  the  fresh 
condition  are  oil  drops  and  red  chromoplastids  which  give  the  fruit  its 


PAPRIKA. 


characteristic  color.     Viewed  in  water,  the  oil  drops  from  the  dried  fruit 
are  of  a  bright  orange  or  red  color  due  to  the  solution  of  the  coloring 


FIG.  436.     Paprika.     Epicarp  in  surface  view,  showing  narrow  grooves.     (MoELLER.) 

matter  of  the  chromoplastids,  and  are  of  great  aid  in  diagnosis.  Concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid  imparts  an  indigo-blue  color  to  the  globules,  a  reaction 
due  to  the  action  of  the  acid  on  the  coloring  matter.  Exceedingly  minute 


en-, 


\  coll 


FIG.  437.     Paprika.     Elements  of  pericarp  in  surface  view,     ep  epicarp;   coll  collenchyma; 
en  endocarp  with  st  sclerenchyma  cells.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

starch  grains  are  occasionally  found  in  some  of  the  cells,  particularly  if 
the  fruit  is  not  fully  ripe. 


520 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


3.  Mesocarp  (Fig.  435,  mes).     The  cells  in  the  middle  portion  of  the 
pericarp  are  thin- walled  and  not  characteristic  except  for  their  contents. 
Through  these  cells  run  the  bundles. 

4.  Giant  Cells  (Fig.  435,  g).     Adjoining  the  endocarp  is  a  layer  of 
cells  of  enormous  size,  often  1-2  mm.,  separated  from  each  other  by  smaller 
cells.     They    are   best   seen   in   carefully   prepared   transverse   sections. 

These  cells  are  evident  to  the  naked  eye 
on  the  inner  surface  of  the  pericarp  as 
longitudinally  elongated  blisters  (Fig. 
438). 

5.  Endocarp  (Figs.  435  and  437). 
The  most  characteristic  layer  of  the 
pericarp  is  the  endocarp,  made  up  over 
the  giant  cells  of  groups  of  scleren- 
chyma  elements  and  in  other  parts  of 
thin-walled  cells,  both  kinds  of  cells  be- 
ing more  or  less  elongated  and  quadri- 
lateral with  wavy  outline.  Penetrating 
the  radial  walls  of  the  sclerenchyma 
cells  are  distinct  pores  which  broaden 
at  the  middle  lamella. 

Pericarp,  Partition  Walls.  Cross- 
sections  of  the  partition  walls  show  that  the  mesocarp  consists  of  thin- 
walled  elements  of  no  especial  interest,  while  the  endocarp  cells  are  more 
or  less  thickened.  As  was  discovered  by  Arthur  Meyer,  the  cuticle  here 
and  there  separates  from  the  cells,  forming  blister-like  cavities  in  which 
are  tabular  or  prismatic  crystals  of  capsaicin,  the  pungent  principle  of 
the  fruit.  If  alkali  is  run  under  the  cover-glass,  the  crystals  at  first  dis- 
appear, but  others  of  octahedral  form,  the  alkali  compound,  take  their 
place.  If  these  blisters  are  opened  and  the  minutest  portion  of  the  con- 
tents transferred  to  the  tongue  by  means  of  a  needle,  an  intense 
burning  sensation  is  experienced.  In  the  fully  ripe  fruit  this  pungent 
principle  is  distributed  throughout  the  pericarp  and  also  the  seeds. 

The  Spermoderm  (Figs.  439  and  440)  has  an  outer  and  inner  epidermis, 
and  between  them  a  parenchymatous  layer  several  cells  thick,  all  of  which 
are  evident  in  sections  cut  from  the  dry  seed. 

i.  The  Outer  Epidermis  (ep)  of  highly  characteristic  elements,  has 
been  carefully  studied  by  Arthur  Meyer,  T.  F.  Hanausek,  and  others. 
Seen  in  cross-section,  the  outer  wall  is  a  cellulose  band  of  even  thick- 


FIG.  438.    Paprika.   Endocarp  and  giant 
cells  in  surface  view.     (MOELLER.) 


PAPRIKA. 


521 


ness  (12-20  p),  covered  without  by  a  thin  cuticle  and  within  by  an  equally 
thin  sclerenchymatized  lining,  while  the  radial  and  inner  walls  are  enor- 
mously but  irregularly  thickened  and  sclerenchymatized.  From  the  inner 
wall  wart-like  protuberances  extend  into  the  cell  cavity.  The  radial 
walls  diminish  in  thickness  from  within  outward,  resembling  buttresses. 
Where  they  meet  the  outer  wall,  they  are  pierced  by  pores  which,  in 
cross-section,  appear  as  slits  between  finger-like  divisions.  At  the  edges 
of  the  seed,  where  the  cells  often  have  a  radial  diameter  upwards  of 
200  fji,  these  pores  occur  in  the  greatest 
numbers.  In  surface  view  the  appear- 
ance differs  according  to  the  depth  of  the 
focus.  On  the  inner  wall  we  see  warts, 
pores,  and  wrinkles ;  on  the  outer,  an  even 
structure  bounded  by  the  curiously  sinuous 
and  porous  radial  walls.  The  appear- 


ep 


FIG.  439.  Paprika.  Outer  portion  of  seed  in  cross 
section.  Spermoderm  consists  of  ep  epidermis,  p 
parenchyma,  and  inner  layers  of  compressed  paren- 
chyma; £  endosperm.  Xi6o.  (MoELLER.) 


FIG.  440.  Paprika.  Spermoderm 
in  surface  view.  ep  epider- 
mis; p  parenchyma.  Xi6o. 

(MOELLER.) 


ance  of  the  latter  is  best  described  by  the  term  "intestine  cells,"  first 
applied  to  this  layer  by  Moeller. 

2.  Middle  Layers  (p).     Thin-walled  cells,  in  the  dry  seed  more  or 
less  compressed,  form  several  indistinct  layers. 

3.  An  Inner  Epidermis,  also  of  thin-walled  elements,  in  cross-section, 
is  clearly  seen  to  be  in  close  contact  with  the  endosperm. 

The  Endosperm  (Fig.  439,  E)  consists  of  moderately  thick- walled 
cells  containing  aleurone  grains  and  fat  as  reserve  material.  A  crystal- 
loid is  present  in  each  of  the  aleurone  grains. 

Embryo.  Of  little  interest  to  us  are  the  delicate  tissues  of  the  em- 
bryo. The  cell-contents  are  the  same  as  in  the  endosperm,  except  that 
the  aleurone  grains  are  somewhat  smaller. 


522  SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  powder  is  either  red,  yellow,  or  brown,  according  to  the  variety 
or  the  method  of  preparation,  and  the  oil  drops,  seen  under  the  micro- 
scope, are  of  the  same  color  as  the  fruit.  Treatment  with  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid  imparts  a  blue  color  to  the  oil  drops. 

The  endocarp  (Fig.  437)  of  elongated,  sinuous  cells,  some  scleren- 
chymatized  (st),  others  thin- walled  (en),  and  the  curious  intestine  cells 
(Fig.  440,  ep)  of  the  outer  epidermis  of  the  spermoderm,  are  the  tissue  ele- 
ments most  easily  found  and  identified.  Starch  is  seldom  present  in 
noticeable  amount,  and  never  in  the  form  of  large  grains.  Tissues  of 
the  stem  and  calyx  should  not  be  overlooked.  The  epicarp  cells  (Fig.  436) 
are  polygonal,  have  moderately  thick,  beaded  walls,  and  are  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  the  quadrilateral  cells  in  rows  of  the  corresponding  layer 
of  Cayenne  pepper. 

The  adulterants  of  paprika  are  various  products  of  cereals  and  oil 
seeds,  nutshells,  sawdust  (particularly  of  red  sandalwood  (Fig.  28)  and 
other  red  or  brown  woods),  turmeric,  brick-dust,  etc.  If  the  material 
is  not  of  a  suitable  color  it  is  often  dyed  with  coal-tar  colors,  or  mixed 
with  a  pigment. 

The  color  of  red  sandalwood  is  extracted  by  treatment  with  alkali; 
the  coal-tar  dyes  commonly  employed  are  readily  transferred  to  a  bit 
of  woollen  cloth,  previously  heated  with  very  dilute  soda,  by  boiling  with 
i  per  cent  solution  of  potassium  bisulphate — a  method  first  devised  by 
Arata  for  testing  wines. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674*.   Berg  (3);    Greenish  (14);   Hanausek,  T. 
F.  (10, 16,  17,  48);  Harz  (18);  Hassall  (19);  Leach  (25);  Mace  (26);  Meyer,  A.  (27,  28); 
Moeller  (29,  30,  31,  32);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Schimper  (37);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle 
(40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (43,  45). 
HARTWICH:  Ueber  die  Epidermis  der  Samenschale  von  Capsicum.     Pharm  Post.  i894j 

27,  609,  633. 
HARTWICH:  Ueber  die  Samenschale  der  Solanaceen.    Vjschr.  d.  naturf.  Ges.  in  Zurich. 

1896,  41,  Jubelband  II,  366. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:    Ueber  die   Samenhautepidermis   der   Capsicum-Arten.     Ber.  d. 

deutsch.  botan.  Ges.     1888,  6,  329. 
LOHDE:  Ueber  die  Entwicklungsgesch.  und  den  Bau  einiger  Samenschalen.  Dissertation, 

Leipzig,  1874,  26. 
MEYER,  ARTHUR:    Der  Sitz  der  scharfschmeckenden  Substanz  im  spanischen  Pfeffer. 

Pharm.  Ztg.  1889,  34,  130. 


PAPRIKA.     CAYENNE  PEPPER. 


523 


MIKLOWN:   Adulteration  of  Spanish  Pepper.     Weekly  Drug  News.  1886,  215. 
MOLISCH:   Collenchymatische  Korke.     Ber.  d.  deutsch.  botan.  Ges.  1889,  7,  364. 
MORPURGO:  Delle  Spezie.    Trieste,  1904. 
VEDRODI  :  Untersuchung  des     Paprikapfeffers.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.     1893,  7. 

CAYENNE    PEPPER. 

This  spice,  also  known  as  red  pepper  and  chillies,  is  much  more  pun- 
gent than  paprika  and  is  preferred  to  the  latter  in  England  and  the 
United  States.  It  is  obtained  from  Capsicum  jastigiatum  Bl.  (C.  mini- 
mum Roxb.),  C.  frutescens  and  other  small-fruited  species  grown  in  various 
parts  of  Africa,  the  East  Indies,  and  tropical  America. 

Zanzibar  Cayenne  pepper,  one  of  the  best  grades,  consists  of  small 
pods  0.5  to  2  cm.  long,  of  a  dull-red  color,  together  with  slender,  more 
or  less  detached  stems.  The  seeds  are  but  3-4  mm.  in  diameter. 

Bombay  peppers,  known  also  as  capsicums,  are  an  inferior  grade 
of  Cayenne  pepper,  said  to  come  from  the  vicinity  of  the  river  Niger  in 
Africa,  not  as  the  name  would  indicate,  from  India.  The  dull  yellow 


FIG.  441.  Cayenne  Pepper  (Capsicum  frutescens).  Epicarp  in  surface  view,  x-ce,  x'-x' 
rows'  of  cells;  h  thickened  horizontal  walls;  v  abnormally  thickened  cell.  (T.  F. 
HANAUSEK.) 

or  brown  fruits  are  larger  than  Zanzibar  peppers  (2-3  cm.  long  and  nearly 
i  cm.  broad),  but  do  not  differ  from  them  in  structure. 

Japan  Cayenne  peppers  are  about  the  same  size  as  the  Zanzibar 
product,  but  are  brighter  in  color  and  more  glossy,  although  not  so  pun- 
gent. Their  anatomical  structure  would  indicate  that  they  are  fruits 
of  a  different  species. 


524  SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 

HISTOLOGY. 

While  the  structure  is  analogous  to  that  of  paprika,  certain  elements 
are  strikingly  different,  thus  enabling  the  microscopist  to  distinguish 
sharply  between  the  two  species. 

The  Pericarp  of  the  dry  fruit  is  hardly  thicker  than  a  sheet  of  writing- 
paper. 

1.  Epicarp  (Figs.  441  and  442).     In  surface  view  this  coat  is  radically 
different  from  that  of  paprika.     The  cells  are  usually  quadrilateral,  more 
or  less  wavy  in  outline,  and  what  is  most  noticeable,  are  arranged  in  dis- 
tinct longitudinal  rows.     They  are  smaller  than  those  of  paprika,  being 
but  20-55  V-  m  diameter,  and  have  indistinctly  beaded  walls,  which  (double) 
are  3-5  /*  thick. 

2.  Hypoderm.     Cross-sections  show  that  a  hypodermal  collenchyma 
of  suberised  cells  is  entirely  absent,  the  character  of  the  tissues  chang- 


FIG.  442. 


^*£Mm^-- 

Cayenne   Pepper    (Capsicum   jastigiatum).     Epicarp   in   surface  view.     Xno. 
(LEACH.) 


ing  abruptly  from  the  thick,  sclerenchymatous  epidermis  to  the  thin- 
walled  tissues  of  the  mesocarp.  This  distinction,  however  marked  in 
cross-section,  is  not  of  service  in  the  examination  of  the  powder. 

3.  The  Mesocarp,  and  4.  The  Giant  Cells  are  quite  like  the  corre- 
sponding layers  of  paprika. 

5.  The  Endocarp  Cells  of  the  two  species  are  also  very  similar,  but 
are  somewhat  smaller  in  Cayenne  pepper. 


CAYENNE  PEPPER.  525 

Spermoderm.  i.  The  Epidermal  Cells  are  of  the  same  general  form 
as  those  of  paprika,  but  the  inner  sclerenchymatized  lamella  of  the 
outer  wall  is  more  strongly  developed  than  the  middle  lamella,  whereas  in 
paprika  the  middle  lamella  alone  is  conspicuous.  In  surface  view  the 
cells  are  somewhat  smaller  than  the  epidermal  cells  of  paprika. 

2.  The  Middle  Layer,  and  3.  The  Inner  Epidermis  are  not  character- 
istic. 

The  Endosperm  and  Embryo  agree  in  structure  with  the  correspond- 
ing parts  of  paprika. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

In  cross-sections  the  lack  of  sclerenchymatized  collenchyma  in  the 
hypoderm,  the  thinner  mesocarp,  and  the  broader  inner  lamella  of  the 
outer  wall  of  the  sperm oderm  serve  to  distinguish  this  fruit  from  paprika. 
These  distinctions  are  of  no  service  in  the  examination  of  the  powder, 
but  the  highly  characteristic  epicarp  cells  (Figs.  441  and  442)  suffice  for 
positive  identification. 

Characteristic  elements  common  to  both  fruits  are  the  oil  drops  of 
a  red  or  orange  color,  the  thick-  and  thin-walled  cells  of  the  endocarp 
(Fig.  437,  st,  en),  and  the  outer  epidermal  cells  (Fig.  440,  ep)  of  the  sper- 
moderm  (intestine  cells). 

The  adulterants  of  both  powders  are  the  same  and  are  enumerated 
under  paprika. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Greenish  (14);  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (10,  16^ 
17,  48);  Hassal  (19);  Moeller  (29,  30,  31,  32);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Vogl  (43,  45). 

See  also  Bibliography  of  Paprika  p.  522 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Zur  Charakteristik  des  Cayennepfeffers.    Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters  Hyg. 

1893,  297. 

ISTVANFFI:  Zur  Charakteristik  des  Cayennepfeffers.     Bot.  Centralbl.  1893,  3,  468. 
WALLIS:  The  Structure  of  Capsicum  minimum.    Pharm.  Jour.  1901, 13,  552. 
WALLIS:    The    Structure  of  Japanese  Chillies.     Pharm.  Jour.  1902,  69,  3. 
WALLIS:   Capsici  Fructus.     Pharm.  Jour.  1897,  59,  467. 


5 26  SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


MYRTACEOUS    FRUITS    (Myrtacea). 

Allspice  is  the  only  fruit  of  this  family  of  importance  as  a  spice.  Cloves, 
the  leaf  bud  of  a  myrtaceous  plant,  is  described  on  p.  397. 

ALLSPICE 

Although  most  of  the  plants  producing  spices  are  natives  of  the  East, 
the  tree  yielding  allspice,  pimenta,  or  Jamaica  pepper,  (Pimenta  offi- 
cinalis  Lindl.),  is  an  American  species,  growing  wild  in  the  West  Indies, 
South  America  and  Mexico,  and  extensively  cultivated  in  Jamaica.  Its 
fine  form,  abundant,  shining  evergreen  foliage,  and  delightful  fragrance 
combine  to  make  it  an  attractive  object  in  tropical  gardens. 

Tobasco  or  Mexican  allspice,  is  a  large-berried  variety  of  P.  officinalis, 
regarded  by  some  as  a  separate  species.  Crown  allspice  (Poivre  de  T he- 
bet),  the  fruit  of  Pimenta  acris  Sw.,  with  berries  8-10  mm.  long,  is  also 
gathered  in  tropical  America.  Both  of  these  have  practically  the  same 
structure  as  common  allspice. 

The  fruit  at  full  maturity  is  a  two-celled,  less  often  one-  or  three-celled, 
dark  purple  berry  5-8  mm.  in  diameter,  crowned  with  a  four-toothed 
calyx;  each  cell  contains  a  plano-convex,  chocolate-colored  seed.  The 
spice  of  commerce  consists  of  the  berries  picked  when  fully  formed,  but 
still  green,  and  dried  in  the  sun.  The  berries  are  dark  brown  with  a 
rough  surface  and  have  a  flavor  supposed  to  resemble  a  mixture  of  cloves 
with  other  spices,  hence  the  English  name  allspice. 

The  seeds  consist  of  a  brown  spermoderm  and  a  snail-like,  spirally- 
coiled  embryo  with  a  long  thick  radicle  and  minute  cotyledons.  They 
contain  from  3-6  per  cent  of  a  volatile  oil,  and  are  therefore  but  about 
one-quarter  as  strong  as  cloves,  the  product  of  a  tree  of  the  same  family. 

HISTOLOGY. 

After  soaking  in  water,  whole  berries  and  seeds  removed  from  the 
berries,  separate  sections  are  prepared  of  the  pericarp  and  spermoderm. 

Pericarp  (Figs.  443-445).  The  outer  wall  of  the  pericarp,  which 
differs  somewhat  in  structure  from  the  partitions  between  the  cells,  is 
first  examined. 

i.  Epicarp  Cells  (Fig.  444,  ep)  of  notably  small  size,  containing  a 
dark-brown  material,  and  here  and  there  well  developed  stomata,  form 


ALLSPICE. 


527 


the  outer  layers  of  the  pericarp.  Hairs  up  to  200  JJL  long,  characterized 
by  their  thick  walls,  and  in  their  outer  portions  by  their  exceedingly 
narrow  lumens,  are  scattered  over  the  surface,  particularly  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  calyx  teeth. 

2.  The  Outer  Mesocarp  with  Oil  Cavities,  forming  about  one-quarter 
of  the  thickness  of  the  pericarp,  should  first  be  studied  in  cross-section. 
The  ground  tissue  consists  of  small  thin-walled  cells  somewhat  larger 


~~st 


FIG.  443.     Allspice   (Pimento,  officinalis).     Outer  wall  of  pericarp  in  cross  section,     oil 
oil  cells;    st  stone  cells  of  mesocarp.     (MOELLER.) 

than  those  in  the  epicarp,  those  about  the  oil  cavities  forming  one  or 
more  concentric  layers.  The  oil  cavities  (Fig.  443,  oil)  are  rounded  sacs, 
up  to  200  {j.  in  diameter,  similar  to  those  occurring  in  cloves.  Over 
these  the  epicarp  and  mesocarp  are  somewhat  distended,  forming  the 
wart-like  irregularities  seen  on  the  surface  of  the  fruit. 


SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


3.  The  Inner  Mesocarp  with  numerous  Stone-Cells  (Fig.  443,  st)  makes 
up  the  major  part  of  the  pericarp.  The  cells  of  the  ground,  tissue  increase 
in  size  from  without  inward,  and  are  either  empty  or  contain  formless 

brown  masses  or  else  crystal  clusters  of  cal- 
cium oxalate.  The  stone  cells  are  irregular 
in  shape  and  have  colorless  walls  more  or 
less  strongly  thickened,  in  which  branching 
pores  and  concentric  markings  are  conspicu- 
ous. They  are  distributed  through  the  par- 
enchymatous  ground  tissue,  being  especially 
numerous  in  the  inner  layers,  where  they 
form  a  nearly  continuous  coat  one  or  more 
cells  thick. 

4.  Compressed  Cells  in  several  layers  line 
the  cavity  of    the  berry.     In  surface  view 
these  cells,  particularly  those   in  the  inner 
layer,  are  polygonal  in  form. 
We  find  in  the  parchment-like  partition  walls  epidermal  layers  of 
polygonal  cells,  a  more  or  less  obliterated  ground  tissue  containing  crys- 
tal clusters,  and  distributed  through  the  ground  tissue  numerous  fibro- 
vascular  bundles   and   occasional  stone  cells    (Fig.  445). 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  446).  Cross-sections  show  that  this  layer  is  thin 
on  the  edges  of  the  seed,  but  on  the  broad  sides  forms  thick  cushions. 


ep 


FIG.  444.  Allspice.  Surface  view 
of  ep  epicarp  and  st  oil  cells. 
Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  445.     Allspice.     Elements  of  partition  wall  in  surface  view.     X  160.     (MOELLER.) 


1.  The  Outer  Epidermis  (ep)  is  of  narrow  elongated  cells. 

2.  The  Middle  Layers  (p)  are  characterized  by  the  pigment  cells  of 
irregular  form  with  contents  of  a  clear  port-wine  color,  which  are  readily 


ALLSPICE. 


529 


found  in  the  powdered  spice.  It  is  these  cells  that  form  the  greater  part 
of  the  thickened  portion  on  the  sides  of  the  seed.  Fibro-vascular  bundles 
of  the  raphe  and  its  branches  ramify  in  the  inner  layers. 

3.  An  Inner  Epidermis  of  elongated  cells  is  seen  in  sur  ace  view. 

Vogl  notes  that  the  spermoderm  is  divided  into  an  outer  coat  including 
the  pigment  cells  and  bundles,  and  an  inner  coat  of  but  a  few  cell  layers. 
As  the  inner  coat  is  not  evident  in  all  seeds  or  in  all  parts  of  the  same 


FIG.  446.     Allspice.     Spermoderm  in  surface  view,     ep  epidermis;    p  brown  parenchyma 

(port  wine  cells).     (MOELLER.) 

seed,  it  is  possible  that  it  does  not  belong  to  the  spermoderm,  but  is  a 
remnant  of  the  endosperm  or  perisperm. 

Embryo  (Fig.  447).  On  soaking  seeds  for  a  day  or  two  in  ij  per  cent 
caustic-soda  solution,  the  spermoderm  may  be  removed  from  the  em- 
bryo. Under  a  lens  the  latter  is  seen  to  consist  of  a  long  radicle  coiled 
in  a  snail-like  spiral  of  two  turns,  diminishing  in  size  from  the  thick  lower 
end  near  the  hilum  of  the  seed  to  the  upper  end  bearing  the  minute  coty- 
ledons. Cross-sections  of  the  seed  pass  through  the  radicle  in  two  or 
more  places  and  may  also  pass  through  the  cotyledons.  By  far  the 
larger  part  of  the  seed  is  radicle. 

i.   The  Epidermal  Cells  contain  coloring  matter  but  no  starch. 


53°  SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 

2.  Oil  Cavities  in  a  ground  tissue  of  parenchyma,  similar  to  those 
of  the  pericarp,  form  a  ring  about  the  radicle. 

3.  Starch  Cells  make  up  the  great  mass  of  tissues.     The  rounded 
starch  grains  (up  to  12  //)  have  a  distinct  hilum  and  are  often  united 
into  twins  or  triplets.     They  resemble  closely  the  starch  of  nutmeg  and 

cinnamon. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  chief  elements  of  allspice  powder  are  rounded  starch  grains 
(Fig.  447),  occurring  singly,  in  pairs,  or  triplets,  each  with  a  distinct 
hilum;  pigment  cells  (Fig.  446,  p)  of  the  spermoderm  with  port-wine% 
colored  contents  (blue  or  green  with  ferric  chloride) ;  white  stone  cells  of 
the  mesocarp ;  oil  cavities  of  both  the  mesocarp  and  embryo ;  small  epicarp 
cells;  and  hairs  with  walls  strongly  thickened  toward  the  apex. 

Ground  allspice  is  adulterated  with  various  cheap  materials,  some 
of  which,  such  as  clove  stems,  allspice  stems,  ground  cocoanut  and  other 


FIG.  447.    Allspice.     Starch  parenchyma  of  cotyledon.     (MOELLER.) 

nut  shells,  cocoa  shells,  dried  pears  and  red  sandalwood,  are  naturally 
of  a  brownish  color,  and  others,  including  cereal  preparations,  legumes 
etc.,  are  colored  brown  either  by  roasting  or  by  the  addition  of  iron  oxide, 
dyes,  etc. 

Cocoanut  shells  are  distinguished  by  the  isodiametric  and  slender  elon- 
gated stone  cells  with  brown  walls,  occurring  either  isolated  or  in  dense 
masses;  cocoa  shells  by  the  epidermis,  the  numerous  small  spiral  vessels, 
and  the  sclerenchyma  cells  of  the  spermoderm;  sandalwood  by  the  char- 
acteristic wood  elements,  and  the  red  color  extracted  by  alkali.  Other 
adulterants,  such  as  cereal  products,  legumes,  oil  seeds,  are  detected  by 
the  characters  noted  under  the  several  seeds. 


ALLSPICE.     TRUE  NUTMEG  AND  MACE.  531 

Allspice  stems  are  present  in  small  amount  as  an  accidental  impurity 
in  the  genuine  allspice  of  commerce;  but  when  the  amount  is  large,  will- 
ful adulteration  is  to  be  suspected.  A  much  more  common  adulterant 
of  ground  allspice  is  clove  stems,  which  closely  resemble  the  genuine  pro- 
duct in  composition  and  appearance.  Spaeth,  who  has  studied  the  com- 
parative anatomy  of  the  stems  of  the  two  plants,  finds:  (i)  allspice  stems 
have  one-celled  hairs  of  various  forms,  with  a  globular  thickening  on 
one  side,  while  clove  stems  are  not  hairy;  (2)  the  bast  fibers  and  wood 
elements  of  allspice  stems  are  less  strongly  developed  and  of  a  lighter 
color  than  those  of  clove  stems;  (3)  the  stone  cells  of  allspice  stems  are 
not  abundant,  and  for  the  most  part  are  small,  light-colored,  and  uni- 
formly thickened,  whereas  those  of  clove  stems  are  more  numerous, 
mostly  yellow  in  color,  and  often  thickened  only  on  one  side;  (4)  con- 
spicuous epidermal  cells  occur  only  in  clove  stems. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:   Hanausek,  T-  F.  (10,  16);   Hassall  (19); 
Leach  (25);  Mace  (26);  Moeller  (29,  30,  31,  32);  Planch  on  et  Collin  (54);  Schimper 
(37);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (43,  45). 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:    Ueber   einige,    gegenwartig   im   Wiener   Handel   vorkommende 

Gewiirzfalschungen.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1894,  8,  95. 
MORPURGO:  Deile  Spezie.-    Trieste,  1904. 

NEVTNNY:  Die  Piment-Matta.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1887,  1,  46. 
SPAETH:   Zur  mikroskopischen  Priifung  des  Pimentes.     Forschber.  Lebensm.  Hyg. 

1895,  2,  419. 


NUTMEGS   AND    MACE    (Myristicacea). 

The  terms  nutmeg  arid  mace  in  the  legal  sense  include  only  the  pro- 
ducts of  Myristica  jragrans.  The  products  of  M.  argentea  are  inferior 
substitutes,  while  Bombay  mace  is  a  worthless  adulterant. 

TRUE   NUTMEG   AND   MACE. 

True  nutmeg  is  the  seed  freed  from  the  spermoderm,  and  true  mace 
the  arillus  or  seed  mantle,  of  a  tree  (Myristica  jragrans  Houtt.)  indige- 
nous to  the  Moluccas  and  introduced  into  Java,  Borneo,  Sumatra,  and 
other  regions  of  the  East  Indies,  as  well  as  into  Trinidad,  Jamaica,  St. 
Vincent  and  other  West  Indian  Islands.  To-day,  as  in  colonial  times, 
the  Banda  Islands  produce  a  large  part  of  the  world's  supply  of  these 


53  2 


SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


spices,  particularly  the  better  grades,  the  term  "Banda"  as  applied  to 
either  nutmeg  or  mace  being  a  mark  of  superiority. 

In  general  appearance  the  tree  resembles  the  orange  tree,  having 
shining  deep-green  leaves.  It  is  dioecious,  but  to  facilitate  fertilization 
it  is  a  common  practice  to  graft  staminate  branches  on  the  pistillate  trees. 

The  nutmeg  fruit  resembles  a  peach  in  shape  and  size.  On  ripening 
the  fleshy  pericarp  splits  into  two  halves,  disclosing  the  dark-brown  seed 
closely  clasped  by  the  deep-red  branching  arillus  (Fig.  448). 

The  mace  is  removed  whole,  dried  in  the  sun,  and  sometimes  sDrinkled 


FIG.  448.  Nutmeg  (Myri- 
stica  fragrans),  enclosed 
in  mace  or  arillus  and 
shell  or  spermoderm. 
Natural  size.  (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  449.  Nut- 
meg. Seed, 
natural  size. 

(MOELLER.) 


FIG.  450.  Nutmeg.  Cross  sec- 
tion showing  shell  (spermo- 
derm), dark  veins  (peris- 
perm)  and  starch  tissue 
(endosperm).  Slightly  en- 
larged. (BERG.) 


with  salt  to  insure  its  keeping.  When  ready  for  the  market  it  varies  from 
a  buff  to  a  brown  color  according  to  the  variety  and  the  care  taken  in 
curing.  The  seed  is  also  dried,  after  wrhich  the  loose  nutmeg  is  removed 
from  the  hard,  dark-brown,  shining  spermoderm.  The  latter  is  1-2  mm. 
in  thickness,  furrowed  on  the  outer  surface  with  the  imprint  of  the  mace, 
and  marked  with  a  band-like  raphe  running  from  the  hilum  at  the  base  to 
the  chalaza  at  the  apex.  The  nutmeg  (Fig.  449)  is  oval,  of  a  cinnamon- 
brown  color,  and  bears  numerous  longitudinal  wrinkles  on  the  surface, 
as  well  as  a  groove  corresponding  to  the  position  of  the  raphe.  Cross- 
sections  (Fig.  450)  show  a  beautiful  marbled  appearance  caused  by  the 
dark-brown  branches  of  the  perisperm  penetrating  into  the  starchy  endo- 
sperm. The  relatively  small  embryo  is  situated  at  the  base. 

It  is  the  common  practice  to  steep  nutmegs  in  lime-water  to  prevent 
the  ravages  of  insects  as  well  as  to  improve  their  appearance.     These 


TRUE  NUTMEG  AND  MACE. 


533 


limed  nutmegs  have  a  coat  of  carbonate  of  lime  which  may  be  removed 
in  large  part  by  friction.  Penang  nutmegs  are  usually  shipped  without 
liming. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Only  nutmeg  and  mace  are  usually  available  for  study,  although  the 
entire  fruit  preserved  in  alcohol,  and  the  dried  seeds,  including  the  hard 
shell  or  spermoderm  surrounded  by  the  mace,  are  sometimes  obtainable 
from  spice  importers. 

Pericarp,  i.  The  Epicarp  consists  of  small  polygonal  cells  and 
curious  multicellular  star-shaped  and  jointed  hairs,  or  their  scars. 

2.  Hypo  derm.     Several  layers  of  small  stone  cells  underlie  the  epicarp. 

3.  The   Mesocarp   consists    of   rather   thick-walled   parenchyma,    oil 
cells  and  numerous  branching  secretion  tubes  with  brown  contents. 

4.  The  Endocarp  is  of  soft  tissues. 

Arillus  (Mace)  (Figs.  451  and  452).  The  seed-mantle  is  a  formation 
intermediate  between  a  true  arillus  (aril)  and  an  arillodium  (arillode). 
Near  the  base,  where  it  is  cup-shaped,  it  divides  into  flattened  branching 


FIG.  451.     Mace   (Myristica  fra grans).     Cross  section  of  outer  layers,     ep  epidermis;    p 
parenchyma  with  o  oil  cells.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

arms  which  form  an  irregular  network  clasping  the  seed.  As  found  in 
the  market,  mace  is  buff  or  brown,  translucent,  brittle,  and  agreeably 
aromatic,  owing  to  the  essential  oil  present  in  amounts  varying  from 
6-15  per  cent.  Because  of  the  large  amount  of  fat  (20-25  per  cent), 
sections  should  be  extracted  with  ether  for  the  microscopic  study  of  the 
other  elements. 

i.  Epidermis    (ep).     The    cells    are    longitudinally    extended,    some- 
times reaching  a  length  of  nearly  i  mm.,  and  vary  from  20-40  //  in  width. 


534 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


At  the  ends  they  are  either  sharply  pointed  or  truncated.  From  cross- 
sections  it  appears  that  the  cuticularized  outer  walls  are  greatly  thickened 
(6-8  ft),  and  that  the  other  walls  are  moderately  thick  and  swell  con- 
siderably in  water.  Chlorzinc  iodine  stains  the  walls  blue,  the  cuticle 
yellow.  These  cells  are  almost  always  wider  than  thick,  thus  differing 


FIG.  452.     Mace.     Surface  view  of  ep  outer  epidermis  and  p  parenchyma. 

(MOELLER.) 


Xi6o. 


from  the  corresponding  cells  of  Bombay  mace,  which  in  cross-section 
are  radially  elongated. 

2.  A   Hypoderm  of  collenchyma  cells  is  found  in  some  parts,   par- 
ticularly near  the  base. 

3.  Ground  Tissue  (p)  of  thin-walled,  isodiametric  cells  25-50  /*,  large 
oil  cells  up  to  80  //,  and  nbro-vascular  bundles,  constitutes  the  bulk  of 
the  material.     In  sections  previously  extracted  with  ether,  the  cells  of 
the  ground  tissue  are  seen  to  contain  numerous  curious,  irregular,  carbo- 
hydrate bodies  with  rounded  excrescences,  ranging  in  length  up  to  12  /*, 
which  become  red  or  red-brown  on  addition  of  iodine..   These  bodies, 
to  which  Tschirch  has  given  the  name  amylodextrin  starch,  consist  of 
a  substance  intermediate  between  starch  and  dextrine,  convertible,  like 
starch,  into  a  soluble  form  by  malt  extract,  and  into  dextrose  by  heating 
with  acid.      By  the  diastase  method  mace  yields  20-30  per  cent  of  so- 
called    "starch,"    or,    strictly   speaking,    amylodextrin    starch.     The    oil 
cells  contain  a  light  yellow  mixture  of  essential  oil,  resin,  and  fat.     Addi 


TRUE  NUTMEG  AND  MACE. 


535 


tion  of  alkali  does  not  produce  a  marked  coloration— never  a  blood-red 
color,  as  in  the  case  of  Bombay  mace. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  453).  During  drying  the  hard,  chocolate-brown 
shell,  consisting  of  the  spermoderm  with  a  portion  of  the  outer  or  primary 
perisperm,  separates  from  the  nutmeg.  Cross  sections  may  be  cut  dry 


*    1 


N 


FIG.  453.  Nutmeg.  Shell  in  cross  section.  5  spermoderm  consists  of  ep  epidermis  with 
st  starch  grains,  p  parenchyma  with  g  bundle,  pal1  outer  palisade  layer,  and  pal2  inner 
palisade  layer  with  kr  crystals;  N  perisperm  with  qfs  fiber  layer.  (HALLSTROM.) 

and  cleared  with  chloral,  potash,  or,  best  of  all,  Javelle  water.    Tan- 
gential sections  should  also  be  cut  of  both  the  outer  and  inner  layers. 

i.  Epidermis  (ep).  Tangential  sections  show  clearly  the  sharply 
polygonal  epidermal  cells  20-40  fj.  in  diameter  with  double  walls  3  // 
thick;  also  robustly  developed  stomata.  Brownish,  amorphous  cell- 
contents,  and  often  starch  grains  are  the  visible  contents. 


536 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


2.  Parenchyma    (p).     The   cells   are   thin- walled   and   contain   clear, 
port-wine  colored  masses  readily  separating  from  the  cells,  also  occasional 
crystals  of  oxalate  of  lime.     Fibro-vascular  bundles  of  the  raphe  and 
its  branches  ramify  through  this  layer. 

3.  Outer  Palisade  Layer  (pal *).     These  cells  are  narrow,  thin-walled, 
and  about  150  fi  high. 

4.  Inner  Palisade  Layer  (pal2).     By  far  the  larger  part  of  the  spermo- 
derm  consists  of  the  sclerenchymatized,  enormously  elongated  cells  of 
this  layer,  which  vary  in  height  up  to  i  mm.  and  in  breadth  up  to  20  /*. 
The  radial  walls  are  remarkably  straight,  but  the  narrow  lumen  is  irregu- 
lar in  outline,  owing  to  the  spiral  thickening  of  the  walls.     A  large  crystal 
of  calcium  oxalate  is  often  present  in  either  end  of  the  cell  or  in  the 
central  portion.      As  seen  in   cross-section,   the  cells  of  both   palisade 
layers  are  wavy  in  outline,  owing  to  the  irregularities  of  the  surface  of 
the  seed,  formed  by  the  pressure  of  the  mace  during  growth. 

Primary  Perisperm  (Fig.  453,  qfs).      i.  Fiber  Layer.     Tschirch  and 
Oesterle  have  shown  that  the  fibers  of  this  layer  are  developed  from  the  outer 

layer  of  the  nucellus,  and  there- 
fore belong  with  the  perisperm. 
Seen  in  tangential  section  of 
the  inner  surface  of  the  shell, 
they  form  an  interrupted  layer 


E-- 


F 


FIG.  454.  Nutmeg.  Cross  section  of  kernel,  s 
primary  perisperm;  F  secondary  perisperm  of 
veins;  E  endosperm  with  am  starch  grains,  al 
aleurone  grains  and  /  pigment  cells.  X 160. 

(MOELLER.) 


FlG.  455.  Nujmeg.  Tissues  of 
perisperm  from  surface  of  kernel 
with  brown  masses  and  crystals. 
Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 


reminding  us  in  their  arrangement  of  the  tube-cells  of  the  cereals.  The 
individual  fibers  are  about  15  JJL  broad,  but  vary  greatly  in  length  and 
have  irregular  outlines. 


TRUE  NUTMEG  AND   MACE.  537 

2.  Inner  Layers  (Fig.  454,  s;  Fig.  455).  A  portion  of  this  tissue  clings 
to  the  inner  surface  of  the  shell;  the  remainder  forms  the  outer  coat  of 
the  nutmeg.  In  tangential  section  the  cells  are  rounded,  12-30  /*  in 
diameter,  with  small  intercellular  spaces.  Dark  contents,  also  crystals, 
usually  prismatic,  less  often  tabular,  which,  according  to  Tschirch  and 
Oesterle,  have  the  reactions  of  bitartrate  of  potash,  are  present  in  the 
cells.  The  cell- walls  are  sclerenchymatized. 

The  Secondary  Perispermm  (Fig.  454,  F)  forms  not  only  the  inner 
portion  of  the  enveloping  layers  of  nutmegs,  but  also  the  dark  fatty  folds 
penetrating  into  the  heart  of  the  kernel.  The  cells  are  polygonal,  for 
the  most  part  smaller  than  in  the  primary  perisperm,  and  contain  more 
abundant  brown  contents.  The  cell-walls  are  of  cellulose.  Large 
secretion  cells  occur  in  the  folds,  in  some  parts  in  such  numbers  as  to 
form  nearly  the  whole  tissue. 

Endosperm  (Fig.  454,  E).  The  light-colored  portion  of  the  kernel 
constitutes  the  endosperm,  a  parenchymatous  tissue  consisting  of  starch 
cells  and  occasional  pigment  cells.  The  starch  grains  range  up  to  20  /* 
in  diameter  and  occur  singly,  in  twins,  triplets,  and  in  larger  aggre- 
gates. Except  for  the  surfaces  of  contact,  they  are  rounded.  Each 
has  a  distinct  hilum  and  often  radiating  clefts.  In  addition  to  the  starch 
grains,  each  cell  contains  an  aleurone  grain  with  a  large  crystalloid.  The 
pigment  cells  contain  starch  grains  embedded  in  a  brown  medium.  These 
cells  are  lacking  in  the  central  portion  of  the  endosperm  (the  "conduct- 
ing tissue"  of  Tschirch  and  Oesterle)  into  which  the  arms  of  the  cotyle- 
dons penetrate  during  germination. 

The  Embryo  is  located  in  the  basal  portion  of  the  seed  and  has  branch- 
ing cotyledons  for  absorbing  the  reserve  material  in  the  endosperm. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole  Nutmegs.  By  far  the  larger  part  of  the  nutmegs  of  commerce 
reach  the  consumer  whole,  either  limed,  that  is  with  a  loose  coat  of  lime 
adhering,  or  unlimed,  the  so-called  brown  or  Penang  nutmegs.  It  is 
customary  in  the  trade  to  separate  each  consignment  according  to  size, 
designating  the  different  grades  by  the  number  required  to  weigh  a  pound. 

It  is  a  well-known  tradition  that  in  Colonial  times,  when  spices 
were  expensive  luxuries,  Connecticut  Yankees  were  wont  to  manufacture 
imitation  nutmegs  from  basswood.  Whether  or  not  this  story  is  based 
on  facts  is  uncertain,  but  a  fraud  of  this  kind  is  no  more  remarkable  than 


53s  SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 

molded  nutmegs,  molded  coffee  beans,  and  many  other  forms  of  sophis- 
tication practiced  at  the  present  time.  The  name  "Nutmeg  State," 
at  first  jokingly  applied  to  the  State  of  Connecticut,  is  now  fixed  in  the 
language,  and  will  doubtless  persist  through  all  time.  It  is  needless  to 
say  that  imitation  nutmegs  of  all  kinds,  including  the  molded  kernels 
described  by  Vanderplanken,  Ranwez  and  others,  can  be  quickly  identi- 
fied by  the  appearance  and  odor  on  cutting  open  the  kernel. 

Ground  Nutmegs  appear  only  in  small  amount  on  the  market.  It 
is  no  easy  task  to  reduce  a  sound  nutmeg  to  a  powder  because  of  the 
high  percentage  of  oily  matter;  furthermore,  the  whole  nutmeg  keeps 
its  flavor  better  and  is  readily  grated  as  needed.  Immature,  worm-eaten 
and  other  inferior  nutmegs  are  generally  used  for  grinding;  in  fact,  they 
are  known  in  the  trade  as  "  grinding  nutmegs."  Certain  insects  devour 
the  starchy  endosperm,  but  avoid  the  resinous  perisperm.  We  have 
seen  kernels  which  had  been  visited  by  insects  that  lacked  almost  entirely 
the  endosperm  and  were  readily  crushed  between  the  fingers.  Chemical 
analysis  and  microscopic  examination  showed  an  almost  complete  absence 
of  starch,  but  an  excess  of  resinous  matter. . 

The  elements  of  ground  nutmegs  especially  worthy  of  notice  are  the 
rounded  starch  grains  (Fig.  454,  am)  with  distinct  hilum,  often  in  twins, 
triplets,  and  larger  aggregates;  the  oil  cells,  pale  yellow  even  after 
treatment  with  caustic  alkali;  the  primary  perisperm  with  crystals; 
and  the  brown  secondary  perisperm. 

The  adulterants  include  every  imaginable  cheap  material  which  is, 
or  may  be  made,  brown  in  color.  The  materials  which  have  been  detected 
include  nutmeg  shells  (spermoderm),  cocoanut  shells  and  other  nutshells, 
cocoa  shells,  linseed  meal,  cereal  matter,  etc. 

Whole  Mace.  The  dried  arillus,  like  the  nutmeg,  is  often  used  whole 
in  the  household.  The  characters  of  importance  in  diagnosis  are  the 
longitudinally  elongated  epidermal  cells  (Fig.  452,  ep),  cross-sections 
of  which  (Fig.  451,  ep)  are  tangentially  elongated;  the  amylodextrin 
starch  grains  (seen  after  extraction  of  the  fat);  and  the  light  yellow  oil 
cells,  which  do  not  become  orange  with  alkali.  As  the  blades  are  more 
or  less  broken,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  adulterate  with  mace  from  inferior 
species. 

Bombay  mace  (Fig.  457)  has  narrower  blades,  forming  a  dense 
tangle  at  the  end  of  the  arillus.  If  chewed,  it  sticks  to  the  teeth,  colors  the 
saliva  orange,  and  does  not  have  a  spicy  flavor.  Cross-sections  show 
that  the  epidermal  cells  (Fig.  458,  ep)  are  radially  elongated.  Treat- 


TRUE  NUTMEG  AND  MACE.  539 

merit  with  alkali  dissolves  the  dull-yellow  contents  of  the  numerous  oil 
cells  (/)  to  a  blood-red  liquid.  The  high  percentage  of  non-volatile 
ether  extract,  as  well  as  the  deportment  of  the  alcoholic  extract  toward 
reagents,  also  aids  in  diagnosis. 

Macassar  or  Papua  mace  is  identified  by  the  broad,  dark-brown 
blades,  the  peculiar  wintergreen  odor,  and  the  high  percentage  of  fat. 
Unfortunately  it  cannot  be  distinguished  with  certainty  'from  true  mace 
by  its  microscopic  structure. 

Ground  Mace  is  a  buff  or  brown  greasy-  powder  with  an  aroma  resem- 
bling that  of  nutmegs,  but  more  delicate.  The  noticeable  microscopic 
characters  are  the  amylodextrin  starch  grains  becoming  red  with  iodine, 
the  elongated  epidermal  cells,  and  the  oil  cells.  In  detecting  Bombay 
mace,  the  large  numbers  of  oil-cells  and  the  color  of  their  contents  before 
and  after  adding  alkali  are  of  chief  importance,  coupled,  of  course,  with 
qualitative  chemical  tests'  and  determinations  of  ether  extract  Chemical 
analysis  must  be  relied  on  to  detect  Macassar  mace.  Starchy  matter, 
nutshells,  and  other  foreign  materials  used  as  adulterants  may  usually 
be  detected  by  the  microscope. 

Nutmeg  'Shells  have  no  real  value  but  serve  as  an  adulterant.  The 
powder  is  identified  by  the  enormously  elongated  palisade  cells  (Fig.  453, 
pal2),  and  the  detached  fibers  of  the  outer  layer  of  the  perisperm. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:   Berg  (3);   Hanausek,  T.  F.  (10,  16,  48); 
Mace  (26);  Meyer,  A.  (27);  Moeller  (29,  30,  32);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);    Schimper 
(37);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villierset  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (43,  45). 
BAILLON:  Sur  1'origine  du  maces  de  la  muscade  et  des  arilles  en  generate.     Comptes 

rendus  de  1'academie,  78,  779.     Adansonia,  1876,  11,  329. 

BUSSE:  Ueber  Gewurze.  Muskatnusse.  Arb.  Kaiserl.  Ges.-Amte.  1895,  11,  390,  628. 
BUSSE:  Notez  betreffend  den  Nachweis  von  Bombay  Macis  in  Macispulver.  Ztschr. 

Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm.  1904,  7,  590. 
HALLSTROM:  Anatomische  Studien  iiber  die  Samen  der  Myristicaceen  und  ihre  Arillen. 

Arch.  Pharm.  1895,  233,  441. 

HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:   Verfalschte  Macis.     Ztschr.  Nahr. -Unters.  Hyg.  1890,  4,  77. 
MOELLER:   Ueber  Muskatnusse.  Pharm.  Centralh.  1880,  453. 
MORPURGO:  Delle  Spezie.    Trieste,  1904. 

PFEIFFER:   Die  Arillargebilde  der  Pflanzensamen.     Inaug.-Diss.     Berlin,  1891. 
RANVEZ:  Verfalschung  des  Muskatpulvers  durch  die  Muskatschalen.    Ann.  Pharm. 

1900,  6,  139. 
TSCHIRCH:  Ucuhuba,  die  Samen  von  Myristica  surinamensis.    Arch.  Pharm.   1887, 

66,  619. 


540  SPICES  4ND  CONDIMENTS. 

TSCHIRCH:  Inhaltsstoffe  derZellen  des  Samens  und  des  Arillus  von  Myristica  jragrans 
Houttuyn.  Tageblatt  der  58  Versammlung  deutscher  Naturforscher  u.  Aertze 
in  Strassburg,  1888. 

VOIGT:  Ueber  den  Bau  und  die  Entwickelimg  des  Samens  und  Samenmantels  von 
Myristica  jragrans.  Inaug.-Diss.  Gottingen,  1885,  365. 

WAAGE:  Banda-  und  Bombay -Macis.     Pharm.  Centralh.  1892,  33,  372. 

MACASSAR  NUTMEG  AND  MACE. 

Myristica   argentea   Warb.  yields    Macassar  or  Papua   nutmeg  and 
mace,  products  ranking  next  to  true  nutmeg  and  mace  in  importance. 

The  nutmegs  (Fig.  456),  often  known  as  long 
nutmegs,  are  25-40  mm.  long  and  15-25  mm.  broad, 
but  by  microscopical  or  chemical  methods  are  not 
distinguishable  from  true  nutmegs.  The  shell,  as 
emphasized  by  Tschirch  and  Oesterle,  lacks  the 
fiber  layer,  a  characteristic  of  no  value  in  the  dia- 
gnosis of  the  commercial  product,  as  that  is  free 

^•HHf  from  the  shell. 

Macassar  Mace  is  darker  colored  than  true 
mace  and  has  broader  blades.  In  its  microscopic 

FIG.  4S6.      Macassar  ..         ..  .  .. 

Nutmeg   (Myristica    structure   and   chemical   reactions   it  is  much   the 


same   as   true   mace;    in   percentage   composition, 
more  like  Bombay  mace.     It  contains  over  50  per 
cent  of  non-volatile  ether  extract,  but  less  than  10  per  cent  of  "  starch." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:   Moeller(32);  Vogl  (45). 
Also  see  Bibliography  of  nutmeg  and  mace  p.  539. 
WAAGE:  Papua-Macis.     Pharm.  Centralh.  1893.  N.  F.  14,  131. 

BOMBAY    MACE. 

The  chief  adulterant  of  true  mace  is  the  arillus  of  Myristica  Mala- 
barica  Lam.,  known  as  Bombay  mace.  Although  this  product  is  obtained 
from  a  tree  belonging  to  the  same  genus  as  true  mace,  -it  is  nearly  taste- 
less and  has  absolutely  no  value  as  a  spice.  The  elongated  nutmeg 
of  this  species  does  not  come  into  Europe  or  America. 

Bombay  mace  has  much  narrower  and  more  numerous  blades  than 
the  true  mace.  These  at  the  apex  are  veriform,  forming  a  tangled,  conical 
mass  (Fig.  457).  The  color  is  usually  a  deep  red-brown,  although  some- 
times it  is  yellow. 


BOMBAY  MACE. 


541 


HISTOLOGY. 

Viewed  in  cross-setions  (Fig.  458),  the  radial  diameter  of  the  epi- 
dermal cells  (ep)  is  greater  than  the  tangential,  whereas  in  true  mace 
the  reverse  is  the  case.  So  far  as  the  cell-structure  is  concerned,  this 
distinction  is  the  most  important,  though  it  is  not  of  use  except  in  the 
examination  of  whole  mace,  or  at  least  broken  mace,  having  fragments 
large  enough  for  cutting  sections.  Of  greater  value  are  the  reactions 
of  the  material  contained  in  the  oil  cells  (/).  Ex- 
amined in  water,  these  cells  are  not  only  more  nu- 
merous than  in  true  mace,  but  the  contents  are  of  an 


FIG.  457.  Bombay  Mace 
(Myristica  Malaba- 
rica).  Natural  size. 
(WARBURG.) 


FIG.  458.  Bombay  Mace.  Cross  section  of  outer 
layers,  ep  epidermis;  p  parenchyma;  /  pigment 
cells;  g  bundle.  (T.  F.  HANAUSEK.) 


orange-red  color.  On  treatment  with  alkali  the  color  dissolves  to  a 
blood-red  liquid,  whereas  in  the  case  of  true  mace  the  color  is  not 
greatly  changed. 

CHEMICAL  EXAMINATION. 

Chemical  analysis  shows  that  Bombay  mace  contains  nearly  60  per 
cent  of  non-volatile  ether  extract,  or  over  twice  as  much  as  true  mace, 
but  only  15  per  cent  of  "  starch." 

Several  qualitative  methods  of  detection  have  been  described,  of 
which  Busse  found  Waage's  test  and  the  capillary  test  the  most  reliable. 
The  tests  employing  lead  acetate  and  chrom  alum  are  stated  by  the  same 
author  to  be  entirely  unreliable,  and  those  employing  basic  lead  acetate 
(Hefelmann's  test),  iron  alum  and  iron  acetate  were  unsatisfactory. 
Waage's  test  consists  in  adding  potassium  chromate  to  the  alcoholic 


542  SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 

extract  (one  part  of  mace  to  ten  parts  of  alcohol).  In  the  case  of  Bom- 
bay mace  the  solution  becomes  more  or  less  blood-red  and  the  precipitate, 
at  first  yellow,  becomes  red  on  standing.  If  only  true  mace  is  present 
both  the  solution  and  precipitate  are  yellow  and  do  not  greatly  change 
on  standing. 

In  making  the  capillary  test  strips  of  filter-paper  15  mm.  broad  are 
soaked  in  the  alcoholic  extract  for  30  minutes,  dried,  dipped  in  boiling 
saturated  baryta  water,  and  spread  on  clean  paper  to  dry.  Bombay 
mace  gives  a  brick-red  color,  but  true  mace  and  Macassar  mace,  a  brown- 
ish yellow,  faintly  red  in  the  lower  part  of  the  strip. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Moeller  (30,  32);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle 
(40);  Vogl  (45). 

Also  see  Bibliography  of  Nutmeg  and  Mace,  p.  539. 
TSCHIRCH:   Bombay -Macis.     Pharm.  Ztg.  1881,  556. 


CARDAMOMS    (Zmgiberactat). 

The  various  plants  yielding  the  cardamoms  of  commerce  are  all  peren- 
nial, rush-like  herbs,  natives  of  southeastern  Asia. 

Two  varieties  of  this  spice  are  exported;  the  small  or  Malabar 
cardamom,  and  the  less  important  long  or  Ceylon  variety.  Although 
the  plants  producing  these  fruits  were  formerly  regarded  as  separate 
species,  both  are  now  classed  as  Elettaria  Cardamomum  White  et  Maton. 
Rarely  other  varieties  reach  the  markets  of  Europe  or  America,  such 
as  Siam  or  round  cardamom  (Amomum  Cardamomum  L.),  wild  or  bas- 
tard cardamom  (A.  xanthioides  Wall),  Bengal  cardamom  (A.  subulatum 
Roxb.),  and  Java  cardamom  (A.  maximum  Roxb.). 

The  fruit  is  a  three-celled  capsule,  often  ending  in  a  short  beak, 
the  remains  of  the  perianth.  Each  cell  contains  two  rows  of  closely- 
crowded  seeds,  each  enveloped  and  cemented  to  its  neighbor  by  a  deli- 
cate transparent  membrane,  the  arillus.  The  form  ol  the  capsule,  its 
size  and  color,  as  well  as  the  number  and  structure  of  the  seeds,  vary 
greatly. 

MALABAR   CARDAMOM. 

Malabar  cardamoms  are  rounded  triangular,  more  or  less  elongated, 
somewhat  over  i  cm.  long.  The  leathery  pericarp  is  light  brown,  yellow, 


MALABAR   CARDAMOM. 


543 


or  nearly  colorless,  longitudinally  striated,  and  only  slightly  aromatic. 
Colorless,  membranous  partitions  separate  the  fruit  cavities.  The  seeds, 
usually  6-8  in  number,  form  a  coherent  mass,  from  which,  however,  the 
individuals,  each  enveloped  by  its  delicate  arillus,  are  easily  separated. 
They  are  red-brown,  2-3  mm.  long,  irregularly  angular,  transversely 
wrinkled,  and  have  a  sunken  hilum  and  a  raphe  in  a  groove  running 
nearly  the  length  of  the  seed  (Fig.  459).  A  bulky  perisperm  surrounds 


I 

FIG.  459.     Malabar  Cardamom  (Elet-      FIG.  460.     Malabar  Cardamom.      /   longitudinal 
taria  Cardamomum).     Seed  with  a  section,  X  3.    // cross  section,  X  8.   p  perisperm; 

arillus.     X3-     (LUERSSEN.)  e  endosperm;  em  embryo.     (LUERSSEN.) 

the  endosperm   and   this  in   turn  the  minute  embryo  (Fig.  460).      The 
odor  is  agreeably  aromatic,  suggesting  camphor,  the  taste  biting. 


HISTOLOGY. 


The  Pericarp  when  dry  is  less  than  i  mm.  thick,  but  swells  some- 
what in  water.  Cross- and  tangential-sections  are  cut  either  wet  or  dry; 
surface  preparations  of  the  outer  and  inner  layers  are  obtained  by  scraping. 


FIG    461      Malabar  Cardamom.     Outer  layers  of  shell  (pericarp),     ep  epicarp,  p  parenchyma 
with  h  resin  cells.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

1.  Epicarp  (Fig.  461,  ep).    The  rounded  polygonal  cells  often  show 
marked  evidence  of  their  formation  by  the  division  of  mother  cells. 

2.  Mesocarp  (p).     A  thin-walled,  large-celled  parenchyma  forms  the 


544 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


ground  tissue,  in  which  are  numerous  smaller  cells  containing  lemon- 
yellow  or  red-brown  resin  lumps  (50  jj).  The  fibro- vascular  bundles 
have  thin- walled  spiral  vessels  (60  ft),  and 
moderately  thickened  bast  fibers  of  about  the 
same  diameter  as  the  vessels.  In  the  inner 
layers  the  tissue  is  a  spongy  parenchyma 
(Fig.  462). 

3.  Endocarp  (Fig.  462).  The  cells  are 
usually  longitudinally  extended,  but  some 
times  are  irregularly  arranged. 


FIG.  462.  Malabar  Cardamom.  Inner  layers  of  shell  FIG.  463.  Malabar  Carda- 
(pericarp)  showing  spongy  parenchyma  and  endocarp.  mom.  Arillus  in  surface 
Xi6o.  (MOELLER.)  view.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 

Arillus  (Fig.  463).  The  membranous,  colorless  seed-mantle  covers 
the  seed  loosely  and  is  attached  to  it  at  the  base.  At  first  glance  it  appears 
structureless,  but  on  careful  observation  we  see  that  it  is  composed  of 
several  layers  of  delicate,  greatly  elongated  cells,  containing  strongly 
refractive  drops  and  here  and  there  crystals,  either  singly  or  in  rows. 

Spermoderm  (Figs.  464  and  465).  To  cut  sections  it  is  necessary  to 
have  the  hard  seed  firmly  fixed  either  between  corks  or  embedded  in 
hard  paraffine.  The  first  and  fifth  layers  are  highly  characteristic. 

i.  Outer  Epidermis  (o).  This  layer,  like  several  already  described, 
has  longitudinally  extended  cells,  but  here  they  are  very  striking,  because 
of  their  thicker  walls,  sharp  outline  and  frequent  arrangement  side  by 
side.  The  cells  are  mostly  35  /£  broad  and  have  either  pointed  or  blunf 
ends. 


MALABAR  CARDAMOM.  545 

2.  Cross  Cells  (qu),  often  with  brown  contents  giving  the  reactions 
for  tannin,  are  indistinctly  seen  in  cross-section,  more  readily  in  surface 
view. 

3.  Oil  Cells  (oil).    These  are  large,  thick  cells  containing  the  essen- 
tial oil,  present  in  the  fruit  to  the  amount  of  4  per  cent,  and  also  other 
substances. 

4.  Parenchyma  (p).     One  or  two  layers  of  cells  are  seen  in  cross- 


FIG.  464.  Malabar  Cardamom.  Cross  section  of  arillus  and  seed,  ar  arillus;  spermo- 
derm  consists  of  o  outer  epidermis,  qu  cross  cells,  oil  oil  cells,  p  parenchyma  and  st 
palisade  cells;  perisperm  consists  of  al  aleurone  cells  and  am  starch  cells.  (MOELLER.) 

section  after  swelling  with  reagents.  In  surface  view  they  are  readily 
found. 

5.  Palisade  Cells  (st).  Because  of  the  enormous  thickening  of  the 
walls  and  their  intense  brown  color,  these  cells  form  the  most  character- 
istic layer  of  the  entire  fruit.  So  greatly  are  the  walls  thickened  that 
only  a  tiny  cavity,  at  the  outer  end  of  each  cell,  remains.  This  cavity 
contains  a  crystal-like  body.  The  cells  are  8-20  p  broad  and  about 
25  fjL  high.  Focusing  on  the  outer  wall,  the  cells  appear  moderately 
thin-walled,  much  thinner  than  the  corresponding  cells  of  Ceylon  carda- 
mom; but  focusing  on  the  inner  wall,  no  lumen  is  evident,  only  a  com- 
pact brown  mass  with  the  sharply  denned  outline  of  the  cell. 

Perisperm.  The  outer  layer  contains  aleurone  grains,  the  remaining 
cells  starch  grains.  The  latter  are  minute,  usually  2-3  n  and  seldom 
over  4  /*,  rounded  or  polygonal,  and,  like  pepper  and  buckwheat  starch, 
form  dense  masses  conforming  in  shape  to  the  cell.  In  the  center  of 


546 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


each  mass  is  a  hollow  space  containing  a  large  crystal  or  several  small 
crystals  of  calcium  oxalate.  After  treatment  with  cold  alkali,  although 
the  starch  dissolves,  the  masses  do  not  disappear,  but  form  at  first  a 
granular,  later  a  homogeneous  mass,  indicating  the  presence  of  a  material 
in  which  the  starch  grains  are  embedded. 

The  Endosperm  is  relatively  small  and  contains  in  its  small,  thin- 
walled  cells  aleurone  grains  and  fat  but  no  starch. 

The  Embryo  has  been  carefully  studied  in  various  stages  of  growth 
by  Tschirch,  who  found  that  it  consists  of  an  axially  arranged  absorptive 


c  — 


— st 


FIG.  465.     Malabar  Cardamom.     Elements  of  seed  in  surface  view,     o  outer  epidermis; 
qu  cross  cells;  ^parenchyma;   st  palisade  cells;   e  perisperm;   aw  starch  cells.      Xi6o 

(MOELLER.) 

organ,  surrounding  at  its  basal  end  a  minute  plantlet  which  shows  before 
sprouting  little  differentiation.  The  cells  are  small  and  contain  the 
same  materials  as  the  endosperm,  namely  proteids  and  fat. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Malabar  or  small  cardamoms  serve  as  a  spice,  especially  as  an  ingre- 
dient of  curry  powder,  and  also  in  the  making  of  various  aromatic  pharma- 
ceutical preparations.  For  these  only  the  seeds  should  be  employed, 
as  the  shells  contain  little  or  no  essential  oil.  It  is,  however,  difficult  to 


MALABAR   CARDAMOM.     CEYLON  CARDAMOM.  547 

effect  a  complete  separation,  and  commercial  cardamom  seeds  invariably 
contain  a  certain  amount  of  shell  fragments.  In  the  case  of  the  ground 
seed,  the  presence  of  a  large  amount  of  shells  indicates  willful  adultera- 
tion. 

Many  fragments  found  in  the  ground  seed  have  distinctive  characters. 
Of  the  perisperm  elements,  the  masses  of  minute  starch  grains  offer  an 
excellent  means  of  identification.  The  characteristic  tissues  of  the  sper- 
moderm  are  the  elongated  epidermal  cells  (Fig.  465,  0),  often  with  adhering 
cross  cells  (qu),  and  the  brown  mosaic  of  palisade  cells  (st).  The  epidermal 
cells  have  the  same  form  as  the  inner  epidermis  of  the  pericarp  and  the 
cells  of  the  arillus,  but  have  much  thicker  and  more  rigid  walls.  The 
elements  of  the  pericarp  worthy  of  especial  notice  are  the  yellow  or  brown 
resin  masses. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674  Berg  (3);  Greenish  (14);  Hanausek,  T- 
F.  (16);  Hassall  (19);  Meyer,  A.  (10,  27);  Moeller  (29,  30,  31,  32);  Planchon  et 
Collin  (34);  Schimper(37);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (45). 
BUSSE:  Ueber  eine  neue  Kardamomen-Art  aus  Kamerun.  Arb.  Kais.  Gesundh.  1898, 

14,  139- 
HARTWICH  und  SWANLUND:    Ueber  Kardamomen  von  Kolombo,  das  Rhizom  von 

Zingiber  Mioga  und  Galanga  major.     Ber.  deutsch.  pharm.  Ges.  1903,  13,  141. 
MORPURGO:  Delle  Spezie.     Trieste,  1904 
NIEDERSTADT:    Die  im  Handel  vorkommenden  Cardamom-Arten.     Chem.-Ztg.  1897, 

21,  831. 
SCHADE:  Entwicklungsgeschichtliche  Untersuchungen  tiber  die  Malabar-Cardamomen 

und  vergleichend-anatomische  Studien  iiber  die  Samen  einiger  anderer  Amomum- 

und  Elettaria  Arten.     Inaug.-Diss.     Bern,  1897. 

SOLTSIEN:  Verfalschung  von  Cardamomenpulver.     Pharm.  Ztg.  1892,  373. 
TSCHIRCH:  Beitrage  zur  Pharmakobotanik  und  Pharmakochemie.     Schw.  Woch.  Chem. 

Pharm.  1897,  No.  17. 

TSCHIRCH:   Ueber  Cardamomen.     Schw.  Woch.  Chem.  Pharm.  1-897,  35,  481. 
TSCHIRCH:  Diagnose  der  Cardamomen.     Schw.  Woch.  Chem.  Pharm.  1897,  No.  43. 
WAAGE:  Fructus  Cardamomi.     Ber.  pharm.  Ges.  3,  162. 

CEYLON   CARDAMOM. 

Long  or  Ceylon  cardamoms  are  the  fruit  of  a  variety  of  Elettaria 
Cardamomum  White  et  Maton,  which  is  still  classed  by  some  as  a  dis- 
tinct species. 

The  capsules  are  much  longer  than  those  of  the  Malabar  variety, 
often  reaching  4  cm.,  and  the  seeds,  of  which  there  are  about  20  in  each 
of  the  three  cells,  are  twice  as  large,  but  are  less  aromatic. 


548 


SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


HISTOLOGY. 
Of  the  several  distinctions  from  Malabar  cardamoms,  the  presence 


FIG.  466.     Ceylon    Cardamom  (Elettaria   Cardamomum).     Epicarp  with  hairs    and  hair 
scars  in  surface  view.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  467.  Ceylon  Cardamom  {Elettaria  Cardamomum).  Tissues  of  inner  pericarp  in 
surface  view,  showing  parenchyma,  spongy  parenchyma  and  endocarp  (ep).  X  160. 
(MOELLER.) 

of  hairs  on  the   epicarp    deserves   first   mention  (Fig.  466).     It   is  true 


UMBELLIFEROUS  FRUITS. 


549 


that  these  are  seldom  found  on  the  commercial  product,  but  the  scars 
with  radiating  cells  about  them  are  quite  as  useful  in  diagnosis.  The 
outer  epidermis  of  the  spermoderm 
(Fig.  468,  o)  has  much  thicker  walls 
(double  walls  6  p),  than  in  the  Malabar 
species,  although  the  cells  themselves 
are  narrower.  Other  differences  are 
too  slight  to  be  of  practical  use. 


UMBELLIFEROUS  FRUITS 

(  Umbelliferce). 

The  inflorescence  of  the  plants 
belonging  to  the  Umbellijerce  is  in 
flattened  heads  or  umbels,  a  word  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  umbella,  mean- 
ing umbrella.  The  flowers  are  small 
with  two-celled  ovaries  crowned  by 
five  petals,  five  stamens,  and  usually 
five  minute  calyx  teeth.  The  two 
carpels,  or  mericarps,  are  plano-con- 
vex, joined  on  the  inner  flattened  side  FlG-  468.  Ceylon  Cardamom.  Tissues 

of  spermoderm  in  surface  view,    o  outer 
known    as    the    commissure.         On     the         epidermis;    st    palisade    cells.     Xi6o. 

convex  or  dorsal  side  they  bear  five  (MoELLER-) 
primary  ribs  and  sometimes  four  secondary  ribs.  When  ripe  the 
mericarps  readily  separate,  disclosing  the  carpophore  or  prolongation 
of  the  stem  to  which  the  carpels  are  attached  at  their  upper  ends.  In 
cross-section  the  mericarps  are  either  semicircular  or  kidney-shaped. 
Running  longitudinally  through  the  dry  pericarp,  are  brown,  essential 
oil  ducts  or  mtta,  which  are  evident  to  the  naked  eye  both  in  cross-sec- 
tion and,  after  boiling  with  dilute  caustic  alkali,  in  surface  view. 

The  epicarp  is  either  smooth  or  hairy,  the  hairs  being  unicellular 
(anise)  or  multicellular  (cumin). 

The  mesocarp  has  outer  and  inner  parenchymatous  layers,  between 
which  is  a  middle  zone  traversed  by  the  fibro-vascular  bundles  of  the 
ribs,  and  by  the  oil  ducts,  the  latter  being  jointed  and  encased  in  a  single 
layer  of  parenchyma.  The  ground  tissue  of  this  middle  zone  is  largely 
parenchymatous,  except  on  the  dorsal  side  of  coriander  fruit,  where  it 


55°  SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 

forms  a  dense  sclerenchyma  layer.  The  cells  of  the  inner  layer  of  the 
mesocarp  are  either  isodiametric  or  transversely  elongated,  conspicuous 
or  indistinct. 

The  endocarp  cells  are,  for  the  most  part,  transversely  elongated, 
forming  a  cross-cell  layer,  although  in  some  species  groups  of  cells  extend 
in  other  directions,  giving  the  layer  a  parqueted  appearance.  In  breadth 
the  cells  differ  greatly  according  to  the  species. 

The  anatropous  seed  consists  of  a  thin  spermoderm,  usually  of  one 
distinctly  cellular  layer  and  of  several  obliterated  layers,  a  bulky  endo- 
sperm and  a  minute  embryo  embedded  in  the  upper  end  of  the  endo- 
sperm. Aleurone  grains  2-15  /*  in  diameter,  containing  crystal  rosettes 
of  calcium  oxalate,  or  globoids,  also  fat,  are  the  only  visible  contents  of 
the  endosperm.  The  minute  radicle  of  the  embryo  is  directed  upward. 

The  fruits  contain  essential  oils,  which  give  them  their  value  as  flavor- 
ing materials  for  food  products,  or  in  medicine. 


COfiPARATIVE    HISTOLOGY   OF   UflBELLIFEROUS 

FRUITS. 

Pericarp.  Epicarp  Cells  marked  with  delicate  striations.  Unicell- 
ular, warty  hairs  in  anise;  prickles  (emergences)  in  cumin;  papillae 
more  or  less  evident  in  celery.  Epicarp  smooth  in  all  the  other  species. 

Mesocarp.  Outer  layers  parenchymatous  in  all  the  species  and  not 
distinctive.  Middle  layers  of  coriander  on  dorsal  side  composed  of 
sclerenchymatized  fibers  with  bundles  but  without  oil  ducts.  In  all 
the  other  species  the  ground  tissue  is  parenchyma,  through  which  pass 
bundles  and  oil  ducts. 

Oil  Ducts.  One  in  each  groove  in  fennel,  dill,  caraway,  and  cumin ; 
one  to  three  in -celery;  three  to  six  in  anise. 

Ribs  of  each  fruit  uniform,  except  in  dill,  where  the  lateral  ones  have 
wings  of  sclerenchyma  cells  perpendicular  to  the  bundles. 

Reticulated  Cells  accompany  the  bundles  of  fennel  and  dill. 
'  The  Inner  Mesocarp  pronounced  in  fennel,  dill,  celery,  and  coriander; 
inconspicuous  in  the  other  species.     In  coriander,  cell-walls  thickened, 
those  of  innermost  layer  porous;  cells  of  inner  layer  in  celery  transversely 
elongated,  broader  than  those  of  endocarp,  more  or  less  parqueted. 

Endocarp  cells  narrow  (mostly  less  than  7  p)  in  fennel,  dill,  celery, 
and  coriander;  broader  (mostly  over  7  ft)  in  caraway,  anise,  and  cumin. 
Cells  parqueted  in  fennel,  dill,  and  celery. 


UMBELLIFEROUS  FRUITS.  551 

Spermoderm.  Much  the  same  in  all  species.  Outer  layer  of  isodia- 
metric  or  transversely  elongated  cells.  Inner  layers  of  obliterated  cells. 

Endosperm.  Walls  thick.  Cell-contents  fat  and  aleurone  grains 
3-15  ft,  containing  oxalate  crystals  or  globoids. 

Embryo  minute,  of  no  diagnostic  value. 

Carpophore  and  Stem  of  woody  elements. 

Analytical  Key  to  Umbelliferous  Fruits. 

I.  Ground  tissue  of  mesocarp  parenchymatous  throughout,  or  sclerenchymatized  near 

the  bundles  only.     Oil  ducts  on  both  dorsal  and  commissural  sides. 
(a)  Endocarp  cells  mostly  less  than  >jp  broad,  often  parqueted. 

*  One  oil  duct  in  each  groove. 

1.  Ribs  of  uniform  size Fennel. 

2.  Lateral  ribs  with  wings Dill. 

**  One  to  three  oil  ducts  in  each  groove. 

3.  Ribs  and  bundles  small,  inner  mesocarp  of  transversely  elongated  cells. 

Celery. 
(6)  Endocarp  cells  mostly  more  than  7^  broad,  seldom  parqueted. 

*  One  oil  duct  in  each  groove. 

4.  Epicarp  smooth Caraway. 

5.  Epicarp  with  emergences Cumin. 

**  Several  oil  ducts  in  each  groove. 

6.  Epicarp  with  warty  unicellular  hairs Anise. 

II.  Middle  layers  of  mesocarp  on  dorsal  side  strongly  sclerenchymatized.     Oil  ducts 

present  only  on  commissural  side. 

7.  Inner  mesocarp  thick-walled  and  porous.     Endocarp  cells  mostly  less  than 

7/*  broad Coriander. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

BARTSCH:   Beitrage  zur  Entwicklung  d.  Umbelliferenfruchte.     Diss.  Breslau,  1882. 
KAYSER:  Ueber  das  Verhaltniss  der  Integumente  der  Samenanlagen  zu  den  Samendecken 

der  reifen  Samen.  Ber.  pharm.  Ges.  1891, 1,  157. 
KAYSER:  Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  der  Entwicklungsgeschichte  der  Samen  mit  besonderer 

Beriicksichtigung  des  histogenetischen  Aufbaues  der  Samenschalen.  Pringsheims 

Jahrb.  wissenschaft.  Bot.     1893,  25,  79. 
DE  LANESSAN:  Observations  sur  le  developpement  du  fruit  des  Ombelliferes.     Bull,  de 

la  Soc.  Linneenne,  1874,  No.  3. 
LANGE:  Ueber  Die  Entwicklung  der  Oelbehalter  in  den  Friichten  der  Umbelliferen. 

Diss.  Konigsberg,  1884. 
MEYER,  A. :  Ueber  die  Entstehung  der  Scheidewande  in  dem  sekretfuhrenden,  plasmu- 

freien  Intercellularraume  der  Vittae  der  Umbelliferen.     Bot.  Ztg.  1889,  341. 
MOELLER:  Das  Pulver  der  Umbelliferenfruchte.     Pharm.  Post.  1892,  25,  24. 
v.  MOHL:  Eine  Kurze  Bemerkung  iiber  das  Carpophorum  der  Umbelliferenfrucht. 

Bot.  Ztg.  1863,  264. 


552 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


TAUFANI:  Nota  preliminare  sul  frutto  e  sul  seme  delle  Apiacee.    Nuovo  giorn.  hot.  ital. 

1888,  20,  307. 
TAUFANI:   Morfologia  ed  istologia  del  frutto  e  sul  seme  delle  Apiacee.     Nuovo.  giorn. 

bot.  ital.  1891,  23,  451. 
UHLITZSCH:  Riickstande  der  Fabrikation  atherischer  Oele.  Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1893, 

42.  215. 
VILLEPOIX:    Recherches  sur  les  canaux  secreteurs  du  fruit   des  Ombelliferes.     Ann. 

sci.  natur.  VI  Ser.  5,  350. 
VAN  WISSELINGH:   Over  de  vittae  der  Umbelliferen.     Gew.  vergadering  der  afdeel. 

Natuurk.  op.  30.  Juni,  1894,  36. 


FENNEL. 

Fennel  (Faniculum  capillaceum  Gilb.)  grows  wild  in  various  parts 
of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  is  also  a  common  garden  plant  in  both  the  Old 
and  the  New  World.  In  Colonial  times  in  America  it  was  a  common 
custom  among  the  Puritans  to  carry  to  church  a  sprig  of  green  fennel, 
known  as  "  Meetin'  Seed,"  at  which  they  nibbled  during  the  service. 

Fruits  of  the  cultivated  varieties  are  from  3-10  mm.  long,  1-2  mm, 
broad;  those  from  the  wild  plant  somewhat  smaller.  Roman  or  sweet 
fennel  (F.  duke  DC.),  grown  in  Mediter- 
ranean countries,  yields  a  larger  fruit  (Fig. 
469),  but  with  a  smaller  percentage  of 
essential  oil. 

Fennel  fruit  is  composed  of  two  plano- 
convex  carpels   united    on   the   flat    com- 


FIG.  469.      Fennel   (Foeniculum  capillaceum). 
a  German  fennel  X3;   b  Roman  fennel 
c  Macedonian  fennel  X  ij.     (HAGER.) 


FlG.    470.       Fennel.     Cross    section   of 
fruit.     (TSCHIRCH.) 


missural  side,  but  separating  easily  when  ripe.  The  commercial 
product  consists  partly  of  entire  fruits  and  partly  of  detached  car- 
pels, the  latter  being  bowed  so  that  the  commissure  becomes  concave. 
On  the  dorsal  side  each  carpel  bears  five  pronounced  ribs.  As  in  other 


FENNEL.  553 

umbelliferous  fruits,  the  dry  pericarp  incloses  a  hard  seed  consisting 
largely  of  endosperm.  The  carpophore,  or  stem  of  the  fruit  prolonged 
between  the  carpels,  is  divided.  The  dry  fruit  contains  2-7  per  cent 
of  an  essential  oil,  consisting  largely  of  anethol,  to  which  it  owes  its  value 
as  a  drug  and  flavoring  material. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Cross-sections  are  cut  with  a  razor  or  microtome  without  special 
preparation  other  than  soaking  in  water.  After  boiling  with  dilute  alkali, 
the  pericarp  may  be  easily  separated  from  the  seed,  and  the  spermoderm 
from  the  endosperm. 

Pericarp  (Fig.  470).  In  each  of  the  five  ribs  on  the  dorsal  side  of 
the  carpel  is  a  fibro-vascular  bundle,  while  in  the  tissues  between  adjoin- 
ing ribs  is  a  large  resin  duct.  Two  resin  ducts  run  through  the  tissues 
of  the  commissure. 

1.  The  Epicarp  Cells   (12-25  /O   'm  surface  view  are  polygonal  or 
quadrilateral,    arranged   often    in   longitudinal   rows.     Their   walls    are 
colorless  and  sharply  defined.     Small  stomata  occur  here  and  there. 

2.  Mesocarp    (Fig.    472).     Several    layers    of    colorless,   thin- walled 
isodiametric  cells  (20-50  /*)  underlie  the  epicarp,  and  two  or  more  layers 
of  thicker-walled  isodiametric  or  transversely  elongated  cells  with  brown 
walls  form  the  innermost  layers  (b,  c).     Between  these  outer  and  inner 
layers  is  an  ill-defined  zone  of  ground  tissue,  through  which  run  the 
oil-ducts   and  fibro-vascular  bundles.     The  oil-ducts,  usually   200  /*  or 
more  broad  and  about  half  as  thick,  are  incased  by  a  single  layer  of  polyg- 
onal cells  of  an  intensely  brown  color   (a).      Because  of   this    sheath, 
the  ducts  in  surface  view  form  broad  brown  bands  in  the  lighter-colored 
ground  tissue. 

Quite  as  striking  as  the  ducts,  although  lacking  all  color,  are  the 
bundles,  of  which  there  are  six  in  each  carpel,  a  large  one  in  each  of  the 
five  ribs,  and  a  small  one  in  the  middle  of  the  commissure,- the  large 
bundles  being  about  the  same  size  as  the  oil  ducts.  The  bast  strand 
is  not  only  strongly  developed  on  the  outer  side  of  the  bundle,  but  extends 
inward  to  the  xylem,  bisecting  the  phloem.  Adjoining  each  side  of  the 
bundle  and  extending  into  the  ground  tissue  separating  the  bundle  from 
the  neighboring  oil  duct,  is  a  group  of  reticulated,  sclerenchyma  cells, 
(Fig.  471),  those  nearest  the  bundle  being  longitudinally  elongated,  the 
others  isodiametric.  These  reticulated  cells  are  characteristic  of  fennel. 


554 


SPICES  4ND  CONDIMENTS. 


3.  The  Endocarp  (Fig.  472,  d)  is  made  up  of  exceedingly  narrow 
cross  cells  from  4-6  /*  broad,  those  derived  from  the  same  mother  cell 
being  arranged  side  by  side  in  groups.  As  a  rule  the  cells  are  trans- 
versely elongated,  except  over  the 
bundles  where  the  members  of 
different  groups  extend  in  different 
directions,  giving  the  coat  a  par- 
queted appearance  peculiar  to  this 
species.  In  cross-section  the  layer 
is  about  15  /JL  thick. 

Spermoderm.      This    is  firmly 


FIG.    471.       Fennel.     Porous  paren- 
chyma of  mesocarp.     (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  472.  Fennel.  Elements  of  the  pericarp  in 
surface  view,  a  brown  cells  encasing  the  oil 
ducts;  b,  c  brown  parenchyma  of  mesocarp;  d 
endocarp.  (MOELLER.) 


attached  to   the  endocarp  on  one  side  and  the  endosperm  on  the  other, 
but  can  be  separated  by  boiling  with  dilute  alkali. 

1.  The  Outer  Epidermal  Cells  are  often  transversely  elongated,  but 
are  readily  distinguished  from  the  cross  cells  of  the  endocarp  by  their 
greater  breadth   (12-25  /")  and  their  arrangement  side  by  side  in  long 
rows,  not  in  small  groups. 

2.  The  Inner  Layers  over  most  of  the  seed  form  a  collapsed,  structure- 
less tissue,  and  it  is  only  about  the  raphe  running  through  the  middle 
of  the  commissure  that  the  cells  are  well  defined. 

Endosperm.     The    hard,    ivory-like    endosperm   consists    of   quadri- 
lateral or  polygonal,   thick- walled   (double   walls   3-6  fi),   colorless  cells 


FENNEL.     CARAWAY. 


555 


containing  aleurone  grains  and  fat.  Examined  in  glycerine  or  tur- 
pentine, the  aleurone  grains  are  seen  to  be  2-8  /*  in  diameter,  and 
contain  one  or  two  globoids  or  a  calcium  oxalate  rosette,  the  latter  being 
evident  after  mounting  in  chloral. 

The  Embryo  is  embedded  in  the  upper  part  of  the  endosperm  with  its 
radicle  directed  upward. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Fennel  is  used  whole  and  ground,  both  as  a  drug  and  in  cookery. 
The  residue  from  the  manufacture  of  the  essential  oil  is  fed  to  cattle. 

Aside  from  the  oil  ducts  three  elements  are  of  value  in  diagnosis: 
(i)  the  reticulated  cells  (Fig.  471)  of  the  mesocarp;  (2)  the  parenchyma 
cells  of  the  inner  mesocarp,  with  brown  walls  (Fig.  472,  b,  c);  (3)  the  par- 
queted groups  of  exceedingly  narrow  (4-6  p)  endocarp  cells  (d).  The 
epidermis  lacks  all  hairs.  Starch -free  endosperm,  with  characters  like 
those  of  other  members  of  the  family,  forms  the  bulk  of  the  fruit. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.   671-674:    Berg  (3);  B6hmer(23);  Collin(8);  Han- 
ausek,  T.  F.  (16);  Harz  (18);  Mace  (26);  Meyer,  A.  (27);  Moeller  (31,  32);  Planchon 
et  Collin  (34);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (45). 
JUCKENACK  u.  SENDTNER:    Zur  Untersuchung  und  Charakteristik  der  Fenchelsamen. 

Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.-Genussm.  1899,  2,  69,  329. 

MOELLER:  Das  Pulver  der  Umbelliferenfriichte.     Pharm.  Post.  1892,  25,  24. 
NEUMANN-WENDER:     Ueber    gefarbten   Fenchel.     Ztschr.    Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1897, 

11,  369- 
NEUMANN-WENDER:     Zur    Verfalschung   von    Fenchelsamen.     Oesterr.    Chem.-Ztg. 

1899,  2,  588. 
UHLITZSCH:   Riickstande  der  Fabrikation  atherischer  Oele.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1893, 

42,  215- 

UMNEY:  Japan  Fennel.     The  Chem.  and  Drugg.  1896,  49,  850. 
UMNEY:  The  Commercial  Varieties  of  Fennel.     Pharm.  Jour.  1897,  58,  225. 

CARAWAY. 

The  so-called  caraway  seed,  used  in  bread  and  cakes  as  well  as  in 
medicine,  is  the  fruit  of  Carum  Carvi  L.,  a  native  of  Europe,  where  it 
is  also  extensively  cultivated.  It  is  also  grown  to  a  limited  extent  in 
American  gardens. 

The  fruit  reminds  one  of  fennel  in  appearance,  but  is  shorter  and 
more  slender,  being  seldom  over  5  mm.  long  and  1.5  mm.  broad.  The 
light-colored  ribs  contrast  sharply  with  the  nearly  black  channels  between 


556 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


them.     Cross  sections  of  the  five-ribbed  carpels  are  nearly  equilateral 

pentagons,  the  inner  face,  or  commissure,  being 
scarcely  broader  than  each  of  the  four  exposed 
faces  (Fig.  473). 


HISTOLOGY. 


FIG.  473- 
Can/f), 


Caraway  (Carum 
Cross    section  of 


The  Pericarp   (Fig.  474)  is  not  so  robustly 

fruits,  enlarged.  -   devdoped  as  ±&i  of  fenneL 

i.  Epicarp.     The    cells    on    the    faces   are 

polygonal,  or  more  often  quadrilateral,  15-45  /*  in  diameter,  arranged 
in  longitudinal  rows.  Over  the  ribs  they  are  elongated.  Stomata  are 
present. 

2.  The  Mesocarp  is  not  so  thick  as  in  fennel  and  the  bundles  are  nar- 
rower, seldom  exceeding  125  jj.  in  diameter,  but   on  the  other  hand  the 


FIG.  474.     Caraway.     F  pericarp  and  E  endosperm  in  cross  section;    /  fibers  of  bundles; 
oil  oil  ducts  covered  above  with  sclerenchyma.     (MoELLER.) 

oil  ducts  (oil)  are  considerably  larger,  the  tangential  diameter  reaching 

350  V- 

The  Inner  Mesocarp,  as  seen  in  cross  section,  is  of  compressed  cells 
which  are  scarcely  evident  at  all  in  surface  view.  After  boiling  in  dilute 
alkali,  we  are  able  to  separate  out  from  the  bundles  narrow  spiral  vessels^ 
somewhat  broader  bast  fibers,  and  also,  at  the  edges  of  the  bundle  near 
the  apex  of  the  fruit,  groups  of  isodiametric,  sclerenchyma  cells.  Reticu- 
lated cells  such  as  occur  near  the  bundles  of  fennel  are  entirely  want- 


CARAWAY.  557 

ing.  Over  the  broad  oil  ducts  is  an  envelope  of  brown  polygonal  paren- 
chyma cells. 

3.  Endocarp.  The  cells  are  transversely  elongated,  forming  a  cross- 
cell  layer.  Their  breadth  (15-25  p)  is  much  greater  than  in  fennel. 
Although  commonly  placed  side  by  side  in  rows,  they  are  not  parqueted. 

Spermoderm.  The  structure  is  obscure  owing,  in  cross  section,  to 
the  compressed  condition  of  the  elements,  and  in  surface  view,  to  the 
hyaline  nature  of  the  walls.  Preparations  obtained  by  boiling  with  dilute 
alkali,  removing  the  pericarp,  and  scraping  the  seed,  show,  with  careful 
illumination,  that  the  thin-walled  cells  of  the  outer  layer  are  mostly 
transversely  elongated.  Cell-structure  in  the  inner  layers  is  scarcely 
recognizable. 

The  Endosperm  and  Embryo  agree  in  structure  with  the  correspond- 
ing parts  of  fennel. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

This  fruit,  whole  or  ground,  is  an  ingredient  of  foods  and  medicines; 
the  residue  from  the  manufacture  of  caraway  oil  is  a  cattle  food  and 
adulterant. 

As  the  structure  resembles  more  nearly  fennel  than  any  of  the  other 
common  umbelliferous  fruits,  it  is  important  to  note  the  points  of  differ- 
ence between  these  two.  Reticulated  cells  adjoining  the  bundles,  brown 
polygonal  parenchyma  cells  in  the  inner  mesocarp,  both  characteristic 
tissues  of  fennel,  are  lacking  in  caraway  ;  on  the  other  hand,  isodia- 
metric  sclerenchyma  cells,  such  as  occur  near  the  apex  of  caraway,  are 
lacking  in  fennel.  The  bundles  are  narrower,  the  oil  cells  larger  in  cara- 
way. A  most  important  distinction  lies  in  the  size  and  arrangement 
of  the  elongated  endocarp  cells.  In  caraway  they  are  much  broader 
than  in  fennel  and  are  transversely  arranged  throughout— never  par- 
queted. The  epicarp  (without  hairs),  spermoderm,  endosperm,  and 
embryo  are  practically  the  same  in  both  fruits. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Berg  (3);  Collin  (8);  Hanausek,  T.  F. 
(16);  Harz  (18);  Mace  (23);  Moeller  (31,  32);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Vilhers  et 

Collin  (42);  Vogl(45). 

MATTHEWS:  The  Vitts  of  Caraway  Fruits.     Pharm.  Jour.  1898,  bU,  259. 
MOELLER:  Das  Pulver  der  Umbelliferenfrtichte.     Pharm.  Post.  1892,  25,  24. 
UHLITZSCH:  Ruckstande  der  Fabrikation  atherischer  Oele.      Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1893, 
42,  215. 


558  SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 

ANISE. 

The  fruit  of  anise  (Pimpinella  Anisum  L.),  the  anise  "seed"  of  com- 
merce, is  the  most  delightfully  aromatic  of  the  umbelliferous  fruits  em- 
ployed in  medicine  and  cookery.  The  plant  is  a  native  of  Egypt  and 
Asia  Minor,  where  it  was  cultivated  in  very  early  times.  It  is  now  grown 
in  various  parts  of  Europe,  particularly  in  Spain,  Italy,  France,  Germany, 
and  southern  Russia,  also  in  the  Orient  and  sparingly  in  America.  Spain 
supplies  the  market  with  one  of  the  finest  grades,  Russia  with  a  grade 
largely  used  for  the  manufacture  of  the  essential  oil,  of  which  the  fruit 
contains  from  1.5  to  3  per  cent.  Anise  oil  is  an  ingredient  of  various 
medicinal  preparations  (paregoric,  etc.),  cordials,  and  candies. 

As  found  on  the  market  the  fruit  is  obovoid,  2-4  mm.  long,  1.5-2 
mm.  broad,  of  a  dull-brown  color  (Fig.  475).  Slender  stems  somewhat 
longer  than  the  fruit  are  attached  to  many  of  them.  On  breaking  apart 


FIG.    475.      Anise    (Pimpinella   Anisum}.  FIG.  476.     Anise.    Cross  section,  enlarged, 

i    Spanish    or    Italian;     2    German   or  (MOELLER.) 

Russian.     (MOELLER.) 

the  carpels  the  inner  surface  is  often  found  to  be  sunken  in  the  middle. 
The  carpophore  is  parted. 


HISTOLOGY. 

Each  of  the  carpels  in  cross  section  (Fig.  476)  reminds  one  of  a  gam- 
brel  roof,  the  rib  on  the  middle  of  the  dorsal  side  corresponding  to  the 
ridge-pole. 

The  Pericarp  (Fig.  477)  is  characterized  by  the  hairy  epicarp  and 
the  numerous  oil  ducts. 

i.  Epicarp.  The  peculiar  warty  hairs  (Fig.  478)  which  characterize 
this  layer  vary  up  to  200  /*  in  length,  the  longer  ones  being  about  15  // 
broad  in  the  middle.  At  the  apex  they  are  blunt,  at  the  base  expanded 
into  a  polygonal  cell  similar  in  shape  and  size  to  the  other  epidermal 
cells.  Some  of  these  hairs  are  divided  by  cross  partitions  into  two  cells. 


ANISE. 


559 


2.  Mesocarp  (Fig.  479).     Running  through  the  ground  tissue  on  the 
convex  side  of  each  carpel  are  20  to  45    oil  ducts  ranging  in  diameter 


S 


3 


FIG.  477.     Anise.     Outer  portion  of  fruit  in  cross  section,     r  rib;    t  hairs;    P  mesocarp; 
st  oil  ducts;  5  endosperm.     (VoGL.) 

from   10-150  /*.     It  should  be  noted   that  the  larger  ducts   frequently 
branch.     Only  two  ducts  are  found  in  that  portion  of  the  pericarp  cover- 
ing the  commissural  face  of  each  carpel,  but  these  are  of  great  breadth, 
reaching  300-400  /*.     The  bundles  are  small,  30-50  /*  in  diameter. 
3.  Endocarp.     Cross  cells  from   7-20  p.  broad  form  the  inner  layer 


FIG.  478.      Anise.      Epicarp   with   hairs    and 
stoma.     (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  479.    Anise.    Surface  view  of  oil  oil 
ducts  and  tr  cross  cells.     (MOELLER.  ) 


of  the  pericarp,  except  on  the  flattened  face,  where  they  grade  into  iso- 
diametric  cells  often  somewhat  sclerenchymatized. 

Spermoderm,  Endosperm,  and  Embryo  are  practically  the   same  as 
in  fennel  and  caraway. 


560  SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Highly  characteristic  are  the  blunt,  warty  hairs  (Fig.  478)  of  the  epi. 
carp.  The  large  number  of  oil  ducts  (Fig.  479,  oil),  their  branching 
tendency  and  their  variable  size  also  the  cross  cells  of  the  endocarp  (tr) 
further  characterize  the  pericarp.  The  odor  of  the  fruit  is  sweeter 
and  more  highly  aromatic  than  that  of  other  members  of  the  family. 

Italian  anise  has  been  found  by  Lochmann  to  contain  the  poisonous 
fruits  of  Conium  maculatum  L.  These  have  a  smooth  epicarp,  and  the 
mesocarp  contains  no  oil  ducts.  On  rubbing  in  a  mortar  with  potash 
solution  a  mouse-like  odor  is  noticeable.  The  micro-tests  for  Conium 
described  by  Tschirch  and  Oesterle  may  also  be  applied.  Volkart  gives 
botanical  analyses  of  Dutch  anise  containing  fruits  of  Conium,  Setaria 
glauca,  and  S.  mridis. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:     Berg  (3);    Bohmer  (23);    Collin  (8);* 
Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16);    Harz  (18);    Mace  (26);    Meyer,  A.  (27);    Moeller  (31,  32); 
Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (45). 
LOCHMANN:  A  Common  and  Dangerous  Admixture  of    Conium   Fruit  with  Italian 

Anise.     Amer.  Drugg.  1887,  16,  81. 
MODRAKOWSKI:  Vergleichcnde  Untersuchung  der  dem  Conium  maculatum  ahnlichen 

Umbelliferen.     Ztschr.  allg.  osterr.  Apoth.-Ver.  1903,  41,  1215. 
MOELLER:  Das  Pulver  der  Umbelliferenfruchte.     Pharm.  Post.  1892,  25,  24. 
UHLITZSCH:  Riickstande  der  Fabrikation  atherischer  Oele.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.   1893, 

42,  215. 
VOLKART:    Ueber  das  Vorkommen  von  Schierlingsfriichten  im  Anis.     Schw.  Woch. 

Chem.  Pharm.  1897,  614. 

cuniN. 

Among  the  spices  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  is^  cumin,  the 
fruit  of  Cuminum  Cyminum  L.,  an  annual  umbelliferous  plant  indige- 
nous to  Egypt  and  introduced  into  India,  Asia  Minor,  and  southern 
Europe. 

The  hairy  carpels  are  6  mm.  or  less  in  length,  and  have  five  primary 
and  four  secondary  ribs  (Fig.  480).  In  cross  section  they  are  kidney- 
shaped.  The  carpophore  is  divided. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp,  i.  The  Epicarp  (Fig.  481)  bears  on  the  ribs  remarkable 
prickles  (emergences)  varying  up  to  200  /*  in  length  and  from  25-40  //  in 


CUMIN. 


breadth  in  the  middle  portion,  broadening  at  the  base.  Each  consists 
of  a  bundle  of  elongated  cells  ending  usually  in  a  single  rounded  cell. 
These  prickles  are  highly  characteristic. 
The  other  epidermal  cells  have  wavy  walls, 
and  in  places  are  longitudinally  elongated. 
Stomata  occur  in  considerable  numbers. 

2.  Mesocarp.    A  bundle  about  50  /*  in 
diameter    is  present    in    each  of  the    five 
primary  nerves,  and  a   large  oil  duct,  200 
H  or  less  broad,  in  each  of  the  four  second- 
ary nerves.     Still  larger  oil  ducts,  two  for 
each  carpel,  are  found  in  the  commissure. 

3.  Endocarp.    The   cross    cells    of  this 
layer  are  7-18  /*  broad. 

Spermoderm.    The  cells  in  all  but  the  outer  layer  are  strongly  com- 


a 

FIG.  480.  Cumin  (Cuminum 
Cyminum).  a  fruit,  natural 
size;  b  dorsal  side  of  fruit,  en- 
larged; c  commissural  side  of 
fruit,  enlarged;  d  cross  section. 

(HAGER.) 


FIG.  481.     Cumin.     Prickle  from  fruit.     (MoELLER.) 

pressed.     Vogl  notes  that  each  cell  contains  either  a  single  crystal  or 
a  sheaf -like  bundle  of  crystals. 

Endosperm.     The  aleurone  grains  are  15  p  or  less  in  diame  er,  a 


562  SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 

contain  oxalate  rosettes  or  globoids.  After  dissolving  the  proteid  mat- 
ter in  dilute  alkali,  the  crystals  are  easily  seen. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  prickles  (Fig.  481)  of  the  epicarp  furnish  the  chief  means  of 
identification.  The  cross  cells  are  intermediate  in  size  between  those 
of  fennel  and  caraway. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Berg  (3);  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16);  Harz 
(18);  Hassall  (19);  Mace  (26);  Moeller  (32);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Villiers  et  Collin 
(42);Vogl(45). 

UHLITZSCH:    Riickstande  der  Fabrikation  atherischer  Oele.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1893 
42,  215. 

CORIANDER. 

The  coriander  fruit  (Coriandrum  sativum  L.)  is  a  native  of  Italy  and 
other  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  cultivated  in 

many  regions  for  its  fruit,  the  coriander  seed 
of  commerce,  which  bears  little  resemblance 
either  in  external  appearance,  histology,  or 
flavor  to  the  other  umbelliferous  fruits  used 
as  foods. 

The  fruit   (Fig.  482)  is  globular  2-4  mm. 
and    cross    section  enlarged.  m  diameter,  and  is  crowned  with  the  remains 

of  the  fine  calyx  teeth  and  the  small  pyramidal 

base  of  the  style.  It  consists  of  two  closely  united  carpels,  each  with  five 
main  ribs  and  between  them  four  secondary  ribs,  but  only  two  oil  ducts, 
both  on  the  commissural  side.  As  the  carpels  are  strongly  concave  on  the 
commissural  side,  the  fruit  is  hollow  and  readily  crushes  between  the 
teeth.  The  flavor  of  coriander  is  mild  and  agreeable.  Coriandrol  is 
the  chief  constituent  of  the  essential  oil. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Owing  to  the  sclerenchyma  layer  of  the  mesocarp  peculiar  to  this 
species,  coriander  is  easily  identified. 

Pericarp  (Fig.  483).  For  surface  preparations  it  is  recommended  to 
boil  in  ij  per  cent  alkali,  remove  the  pericarp  and  scrape  both  the  outer 
and  inner  surface. 


CORIANDER.  563 

* 

1.  Epicarp.     The  sharply  polygonal  cells,   15-30  /*,  contain  crystals 
and  crystal  clusters  of  calcium  oxalate  also  remains  of  chlorophyl  grains. 

2.  The  Hypodermal  Cells,  of  which  there  are  two  or  three  layers, 
are  somewhat  larger  than  those  of  the  epicarp,  and  in  cross-section  are 
tangentially  elongated. 

3.  Parenchyma.     Between  the  ribs  this  layer  consists  of  large,  iso- 
diametric,  thin-walled  cells,  and  in  the  ribs,  of  longitudinally  elongated, 


FIG    483.     Coriander.       Cross    sec-  FIG.  484.     Coriander.     Sclerenchyma  and  paren- 

tion  through    portion  of  the  two  chyma  of  mesocarp  in   surface  view.     (MoEL- 

fruits     showing    where    they    are  LER.) 
grown  together.     (BERG.) 

moderately   thick-walled   cells.     Between   this   and   the   next   layer  are 
the  insignificant  fibro- vascular  bundles. 

4.  Fiber  Layer    (Fig.    484).     Tangentially  extended    fibers,    crossing 
one  another  in  different  directions,  form  a  continuous  coat  on  the  dorsal 
side  of  each  carpel,  but  are  entirely  lacking  on  the  commissure;  on  the 
other  handi  two  oil  ducts  300-400  ^  in  diameter  occur  on  the  commissural 
side,  but  none  are  present  on  the  dorsal  side.     The  fiber  coat  is  from 
5-10  fibers  thick  (50-175  /f),  being  thickest  in  the  ribs.     The  fibers  have 
strongly  thickened,   sclerenchymatized,   porous  walls.     A    similar  fiber 
layer  occurs  in  the  endocarp  of  the  apple  and  coffee  bean. 

5.  Inner   Mesocarp.     Isodiametric   or   somewhat   elongated   rounded 
parenchyma  cells    25-607*  in   diameter   make   up   two   or   more  layers. 
They  have  yellow  walls  4-8  /*  thick,  which,  in  the  innermost  layer,  are 
distinctly  porous. 

6.  Endocarp.     Narrow    cross   cells    3-10  /£   broad,    often    parqueted, 
remind  one  of  the  endocarp  of  fennel. 


564  SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


Spermoderm.  After  removal  of  the  pericarp  as  above  described, 
the  spermoderm  may  be  separated  from  the  seed  by  scraping.  The 
cells  in  the  outer  layer  are  polygonal,  15-25  jj.  in  diameter,  and  contain 
a  brown-green  substance. 

Endosperm.  This,  in  cross-section,  is  narrow  kidney-shaped.  It 
contains  aleurone  grains  like  those  found  in  other  members  of  the  family. 

The  Embryo  presents  no  distinctive  features. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole  coriander  fruits  are  much  used  in  confectionery,  and  also  to 
some  extent  in  mixtures  of  whole  spices;  the  ground  fruits  enter  into 
the  composition  of  various  spice  mixtures  and  drugs. 

From  all  other  fruits  of  the  family  they  are  distinguished  by  the  dense 
fiber  layer  (Fig.  484)  and  the  presence  of  oil  ducts  only  on  the  com- 
missural  side.  The  endocarp  is  much  like  that  of  fennel,  dill,  and  celery, 
but  seen  in  combination  with  the  thick  and  porous-walled  inner  mesocarp 
cells  is  useful  in  identification. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Berg  (3);  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16);  Harz 
(18);  Mace  (26);  Meyer,  A.  (27);  Moeller(32);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Villiers  et 
Collin  (42);  Vogl  (45). 

PERROT:    Sur  1'anatomie   du  fruit  de  coriandre.      Bui.   Sci.   Pharm.    1901,  .3,   385 
UHLITZSCH:  Riickstande  der  Fabrikation  atherischer  Oele.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1893, 
42,  215. 

DILL. 

Like  most  of  the  umbelliferous  plants  yielding  fruits  used  for  culinary 
purposes,  dill  (Anethum  graveolens  L.)  is  a  native  of  parts  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean. 

The  carpels  (Fig.  485)  are  plano-convex,  3-5  mm.  long,  and  2-3  mm. 
broad.  Of  the  five  ribs,  the  two  on  the  edges  form  wings  about  0.5  mm. 
broad,  while  the  remaining  three  on  the  convex  surface  are  not  pro- 
nounced. The  carpophore  is  divided  nearly  to  the  base. 

HISTOLOGY. 

This  fruit  is  distinguished  from  fennel  by  the  wings  on  the  edges. 
While  the  bundles  in  the  other  ribs  are  not  usually  over  100  ^  in  diameter, 
those  in  the  wings  reach  300  /*.  The  thin,  chaffy  edges  of  the  wings, 
about  300  JJL  broad,  consist  of  porous,  sclerenchyma  cells,  in  the  outer  layers 


DILL.    CELERY  SEED.  565 

isodiamctric,   in  the  inner  layers   greatly  elongated   (often   150  fi)   and 
arranged  perpendicular  to  the  bundle. 

On  the  side  of  the  bundle  nearest  the  seed  are  reticulated  elements, 
which  are  either  isodiametric  or  axially  elongated. 

Epicarp,  Endocarp,  Spermoderm,  and  Embryo  are 
similar  in  structure  to  the  corresponding  parts  of 
fennel. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

FIG.  485.     Dill   (Ane- 

Dill  fruits  are  employed  both  in  foods  and   medi-      thum     graveoiens). 

\/  - 

cines.  They  are  distinguished  from  fennel  by  the 
broad  wings,  each  with  a  large  bundle  (300  //),  and  adjoining  the  bundle, 
porous,  sclerenchyma  elements.  On  the  cuter  side  these  sclerenchyma 
cells  are  elongated  perpendicularly  to  the  bundle,  arid  are  distinctly  but 
finely  porous,  whereas  on  the  inner  side  of  the  bundle  they  are  longi- 
tudinally elongated  and  reticulated. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674    Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16);  Harz  (18). 
UHLITZSCH:    Riickstande  der  Fabrikation  atherischer  Oele.     Landw.  Vers.-Stat.  1893, 

42,  215. 
UMNEY:   Some  Commercial  Varieties  of  Dill  Fruits.     Pharm.  Jour.  1898,  61,  176. 

CELERY    SEED. 

» 

Celery  (Apium  graveoiens  L.)  is  grown  throughout  the  temperate 
regions  of  Europe  and  America  for  its  succulent  leaf-stalks  or  fleshy 
roots,  and  in  France  for  its  spicy  fruits. 

These  are  minute,  0.8-1.5  mm.  long,  and  are  shaped  much  like  anise 
seed.  The  carpophore  is  entire  nearly  to  the  apex.  Cross -sections  of 
the  carpels  are  nearly  regular  pentagons. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp.  After  boiling  or  soaking  for  some  hours  in  ij  per  cent 
alkali  the  pericarp  separates  from  the  seed. 

1.  The  Epicarp  Cells  in  surface  view  are  sinuous  in  outline,  the  outer 
walls  being  delicately  striated,  and  in  parts  extended  beyond  the  surface 
in  the  form  of  warts. 

2.  Mesocarp.     One,   two,   or  three  oil  ducts    occur    in  each   groove 
on  the  dorsal  side,  while  two  are  present  on  the  commissural  side.     They 


566  SPICES    AND   CONDIMENTS. 

are  surrounded  by  a  layer  of  polygonal  cells.  The  bundles  are  small, 
and  at  the  apex  of  the  seed  are  accompanied  by  groups  of  sclerenchyma 
cells. 

The  inner  layers  of  the  mesocarp  consist  of  elongated  cells  broader 
than  those  of  the  endocarp  (10-16  /*),  but  otherwise  very  much  like  them. 
They  are  for  the  most  part  transversely  arranged,  but  groups  of  cells 
extended  in  other  directions  are  not  uncommon. 

3.  Endocarp.  Narrow  cross  cells  (4-10  /z),  such  as  are  found  in 
fennel  and  dill,  make  up  this  layer.  Although  mostly  transversely  ex- 
tended, a  parqueted  arrangement  is  not  uncommon. 

Spermoderm,  Endosperm,  and  Embryo  conform  in  structure  to  the 
usual  type  of  umbelliferous  seed. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Celery  seed  has  a  limited  use  for  seasoning  soups,  gravies,  etc.,  and 
celery  salt,  a  mixture  of  the  ground  seeds  with  common  salt,  is  a  table 
condiment.  Before  examination  the  latter  should  be  freed  from  the 
salt  by  stirring  with  water,  allowing  the  insoluble  matter  to  settle. 

Mustard  seed  and  other  cheaper  spices  are  common  admixtures. 

Although  none  of  the  elements  are  characteristic,  the  presence  of 
two  cross-cell  layers,  one  of  cells  10-16  /*  broad  belonging  to  the  inner 
mesocarp,  the  other  of  narrow  endocarp  cells  such  as  are  found  in  fennel, 
is  of  service  in  diagnosis.  The  epicarp  is  delicately  striated  and  some- 
times warty,  but  is  difficult  to  find. 


MISCELLANEOUS    FRUITS   AND   SEEDS. 

Mustards  are  described  with  the  oil  seeds  (pp.  176-185),  tonka 
bean  with  the  legumes  (p.  273).  The  following  are  unclassified: 

STAR-ANISE. 

Aside  from  its  anise-like  aroma,  star-anise  bears  no  resemblance  to 
umbelliferous  fruits.  It  is  the  fruit  of  a  tree  (Illicium  verum  Hook,  fil., 
order  Magnoliacece),  indigenous  to  southern  China  and  cultivated  in 
Japan,  the  Philippines  and  other  parts  of  the  Orient.  After  blooming 
the  6-8  (rarely  9-12)  independent  upright  carpels  assume  horizontal 
positions,  forming  a  flat  expanded  rosette  (Fig.  486,  i)  radiating  from 


STAR-ANISE. 


567 


a  central  column  and  borne  on  a  slender  stem.  The  ripe  carpels,  12-20 
mm.  long  and  6-10  mm.  high,  are  laterally  somewhat  flattened,  pointed 
on  the  free  end,  and  dehiscent  on  the  upper  (before  expansion,  the  inner) 
side,  thus  making  them  boat-shaped.  The  outer  surface  of  the  pericarp 
is  dark  brown  and  roughened;  the  surface  of  dehiscence  and  the  lining 
of  the  cavity  are  smooth  and  lustrous.  Still  more  lustrous  are  the  light- 
brown,  obovoid,  anatropous  seeds,  5-8  mm.  long,  each  containing  a 
bulky*  endosperm  and  a  minute  embryo.  Star-anise  owes  its  agreeable 


FIG.  486.  Star- Anise  (Illidum  verum) .  i  aggre- 
gate fruit;  3  single  fruit;  4  (left)  stem;  6  seed. 
Shikimi  (Illidum  religiosum).  2  aggregate 
fruit;  5  single  fruit;  4  (right)  stem;  7  seed. 

(VOGL.) 


FIG.  487.  Star-Anise.  Cross  section 
of  fruit,  d  dehiscence  slit;  /  fiber 
group;  epi  epicarp;  mes  mesocarp; 
end  endocarp;  fv  fibro-vascular 
bundle.  (VOGL.) 


aroma  to  an  essential  oil  situated  in  the  pericarp,  which,  like  anise  oil, 
consists  largely  of  anethol. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  microscopic  structure  is  somewhat  complicated,  and  includes  a 
number  of  beautiful  and  highly  characteristic  elements. 

Pericarp  (Fig.  487).  The  hard  pericarp  should  be  soaked  in  water 
before  making  preparations.  Cross  sections  should  be  cut  of  the  whole 
pericarp,  also  longitudinal  sections  through  the  dehiscence  surface.  Prepa- 


563 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


rations  obtained  by  scraping  the  outer  and  inner  portions  of  the  peri- 
carp, and  tangential  sections  from  the  surfaces  of  dehiscence  are  also 
instructive. 

i.  Epicarp  (epi).  The  roughened  outer  surface  of  the  pericarp  is 
covered  with  an  epicarp  of  large  cells  (40-100  p.)  with  wavy  side  walls 
pierced  by  numerous  pores,  and  greatly  thickened  outer  walls  (10-15/1) 
covered  with  a  striated  cuticle.  Interspersed  among  these  cells  are 
large  stomata.  Highly  characteristic  are  the  narrow,  more  or  less  paral- 


str 


FIG.  488.  Star-Anise.  Elements  of  powder  in  cross  section  and  surface  view,  ep  epi- 
carp with  c  cuticle  and  sp  stoma;  p  parenchyma  of  mesocarp  with  oe  oil  cell;  sir  branched 
stone  cell;  sts  stone  cells;  st  stone  cells  from  beneath  dehiscence  surface;  s  palisade 
cells  of  endocarp;  m  parenchmya  of  spermoderm ;  en  spermoderm.  X  1 20.  (MOELLER). 

lei,  branching  and  anastomosing  striations  of  the  cuticle  (Fig.  488,  c), 
which  in  cross-section  appear  like  teeth.  The  contents  of  these  cells 
is  a  red-brown  material,  either  in  homogeneous  masses  or  globules, 
changing  to  a  green  color  on  addition  of  ferric  chloride. 

2.  Mesocarp  (mes).  This  is  thickest  in  the  dorsal  (under)  side  of  the 
pericarp,  diminishing  gradually  toward  the  cleft  of  dehiscence.  The 
cells  are  variable  in  size,  and  have  thin,  brown,  wavy  walls  and  brown 


STAR-ANISE.  569 

contents.  Here  and  there  are  found  large,  rounded  cells,  containing 
essential  oil,  which  in  the  ripe  fruit  are  more  or  less  shrunken,  but  assume 
their  original  form  on  treating  tangential  sections  with  dilute  alkali. 
The  walls  of  the  oil  cells  are  cuticularized  and,  as  noted  by  Vogl,  become 
intensely  red  on  the  addition  of  alcoholic  fuchsin.  Scattered  through 
the  mesocarp  and  more  abundantly  through  the  tissues  of  the  fruit  stem, 
are  branching  stone  cells  of  various  fantastic  shapes,  denominated  by 
Tschirch  "  astrosclereids. "  These  are  best  obtained  by  maceration. 
Through  the  middle  layers  of  the  mesocarp  run  the  bundles,  of  which 
the  narrow  spiral  vessels,  the  broad  reticulated  vessels,  and  the  bast 
fibers  of  various  breadth,  are  the  noticeable  elements.  The  cells  in  the 
inner  layers  are  smaller  than  in  the  outer  and,  as  may  be  seen  in  cross- 
section,  are  collenchymatously  thickened. 

Adjoining  the  endocarp  on  each  of  the  dehiscence  surfaces  (d)  is  a 
dense  layer,  500  /£  or  more  thick,  of  longitudinally  arranged  scleren- 
chym'a  fibers.  These  fibers  vary  greatly  as  to  the  thickness  of  the  walls, 
and  the  breadth  of  the  cavity. 

3.  Endocarp  (end).  A  layer  of  sclerenchymatized  but  thin- walled 
palisade  cells,  reaching  600  /JL  in  height  and  60  /*  in  breadth,  lines  the 
seed  cavity.  Their  shape  in  cross-section  is  sharply  rectangular.  In 
surface  view  they  are  polygonal,  but  the  isolated  cells  or  groups  of  cells 
obtained  from  the  powder  fall  on  their  side,  presenting  the  same  appear- 
ance as  in  cross-section.  Their  great  length  and  prismatic  form  is 
very  noticeable.  These  cells  pass  by  degrees  into  short,  strongly  thick- 
ened, porous  stone  cells  on  the  dehiscence  surfaces.  Toward  the  edge 
of  these  surfaces  they  have  thinner  walls,  elegantly  marked  with  parallel 
reticulations. 

Spermoderm  (Fig.  489).  Quite  as  striking  as  the  elements  of  the 
pericarp  are  those  of  the  spermoderm. 

1.  The  Outer  Epidermis   (ep)  may  be  separated  as  yellow,  brittle, 
glassy  fragments  from  the  inner  layers  which  are  firmly  attached  to  the 
endosperm.     As    appears    in    cross-section,    the    layer   is    composed    of 
sclerenchyma    palisade   cells    150-200^   high    and   30-70/1   broad,    the 
radial  walls  of  which  are  very  strongly  thickened  in  the  outer  portion, 
but  narrow  near  the  inner  wall,  forming  an  inverted  funnel-shaped  lumen. 
Round  and  very  distinct   pores  pierce   both  the    radial   and  tangential 

walls. 

2.  Sclerenchymatized   Spongy    Parenchyma    (sub)    forms    the    brown 
subepidermal  layer.     The  cells  are  large,  often  longitudinally  elongated, 


570 


SPICES  ^ND   CONDIMENTS. 


flat,   and  exceedingly  irregular  in  shape  (Fig.  488  m).    Their  porous 
membrane  is  impregnated  with  brown  coloring  matter. 

3.  Middle  Layers   (p).     Proceeding  inward,   the  intercellular  spaces 
become  less  numerous  and  the  walls,  although  still  somewhat  thickened, 


—  ep 


en 


FIG.  489.  Star-Anise.  Cross  section  of  outer  portion  of  seed.  Spermoderm  consists  of 
ep  outer  epidermis,  sub  supepidermal  layer  and  p  parenchyma;  en  inner  obliterated 
tissue  (perisperm  ?) ;  £  endosperm.  (MoELLER.) 

lose  their  sclerenchymatous  character  and  their  brown  color.  Elongated 
elements  form  the  inner  layers. 

4.  Hyaline  Layer  (en).  By  scraping  are  disclosed  still  other  cells 
forming  the  colorless  inner  membrane.  They  appear  as  an  indistinct 
layer  in  cross-section  and  are  easily  overlooked.  Their  contents  are 
numerous,  large,  prismatic  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate.  Some  of  these 
cells  may  belong  to  the  perisperm. 

Endosperm.  Thin-walled  cells  containing  fat  and  protein  make  up 
the  endosperm.  At  first  glance  the  contents  appear  as  an  amorphous, 
colorless  mass,  but  after  extracting  the  fat  and  treatment  with  alcoholic 


STAR- ANISE.  571 

iodine  a  clear  differentiation  of  the  aleurone  grains  is  obtained.  These 
have  roughened  surfaces  and  occur  to  some  extent  singly,  reaching  in 
extreme  cases  25/4;  but  more  often  are  combined  to  form  compact  masses. 
The  individual  grains  contain  globoids,  less  often  single  crystalloids. 

The  Embryo  is  too  minute  to  form  any  considerable  portion  of  the 
product,  and  possesses  no  elements  worthy  of  notice. 

The  Fruit  Column  and  Fruit  Stem  contain,  among  other  woody 
elements,  numerous  astrosclereids. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  fruit  is  seldom  found  in  the  kitchen,  but  is  largely  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  medicinal  preparations,  cordials,  and  perfumes, 
as  well  as  essential  oil. 

The  histological  elements-  resemble  closely  those  of  the  poisonous 
fruit  of  shikimi  (Illidum  religiosum  Siebold),  but  exhibit  some  differ- 
ences noted  in  the  subsequent  chapter.  Distinction  'from  other  materials 
is  simple,  owing  to  the  highly  characteristic  elements  of  the  pericarp, 
the  spermoderm,  and  the  fruit  stem.  Of  especial  diagnostic  importance 
are  the  striated  cells  of  the  epicarp  (Fig.  488,  ep),  the  long,  non-porous, 
rather  thin-walled  prismatic  cells  of  the  endocarp  (s),-  the  thick- walled, 
porous  elements  from  beneath  the  dehiscence  surface,  the  epidermal 
stone  cells  of  the  spermoderm  with  funnel-shaped  cavities,  the  scleren- 
chymatized  subepidermal  spongy  parenchyma  (m),  and  the  inner  crystal- 
bearing  layers,  and  finally  the  astrosclereids  (str)  of  the  mesocarp  and 
stem.  It  is. hardly  necessary  to  undertake  the  somewhat  difficult  task 
of  examining  the  aleurone  grains  except  in  cases  where  the  presence  of 
shikimi  is  suspected. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:   Berg  (3);   Fliickiger  (u);   Hanausek,  T. 
F.  (16,  48);  Mace  (26);  Meyer,  A.  (27);  Moeller  (29,  30,  31,  32);  Planchon  et  -Collin 
(34);   Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (45). 
BLONDEL:  L'industrie  de  la  Badiane  au  Tonkin.     Jour,  pharm.  chim.  1889,  20,  567. 
GODFRIN:   Etude  histologique  sur  les  tegument  seminaux  des  Angiospermes.     Soc.  d. 

Sci.  d.  Nancy,  1880,  109. 

HARTWICH:  Giftiger  Sternanis.     Schw.  Woch.  f.  Chem.  u.  Pharm.  1900,  39,  104. 
LAUREN:  Giftiger  und  echter  Sternanis.     Apoth.-Ztg.  1896,  11,  650. 
LENZ:  Zur  anatomischen  Unterscheidung  der  Friichte  von  Illicium  religiosum  Siebold 

und  /.  verum  Hook.  fil.     Archiv.  d.  Pharm.  1899,  237,  241. 
LENZ:  Ueber  die  Erkennung  der  giftigen  Sikkimifruchte  im  Sternanis.     Pharm.  Ztg. 

1899,  44,  44. 


572  SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 

PFISTER:  Zur  Kenntniss  desechten  und  des  giftigen  Sternanis.   Vjschr.  d.  Naturf.  Ges. 

in  Zurich,  1892,  37,  313. 
PFISTER:  Zur  Unterscheidung  von  echtem  und  giftigem  Sternanis.     Schw.  Woch.  f. 

Chem.  u.  Pharm.  1899. 
PFISTER:  Japanischer  Sternanis.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1897,  351. 


SHIKIMI. 

Shikimi  (also  spelled  sikimi,  sikkimi,  sikimmi,  skimmi)  (Illicium 
religiosum  Siebold)  grows  in  Japan,  especially  about  the  Buddhist  tem- 
ples, hence  the  specific  name  religiosum. 

The  poisonous  fruit  resembles  star-anise  in  morphological  and  histo- 
logical  structure,  but  in  chemical  composition  is  characterized  by  the 
absence  of  anethol  and  the  presence  of  a  poisonous  principle,  "  shi- 
kimin."  The  carpels  (Fig.  486)  are  somewhat  smaller  than  those  of 
star-anise,  less  compressed,  and  have  a  thinner  beak,  usually  curved 
upward;  but  these  distinctions  are  not  sufficiently  marked  to  render 
identification,  especially  in  mixtures,  absolutely  certain.  Their  odor  is 
not  like  that  of  anise. 

The  following  are  the  chief  distinctions  from  star-anise: 

Star-anise.  Endocarp  cells  highest  (up  to  600  jj.)  near  the  dehiscence 
surface,  gradually  passing  into  the  cells  of  that  surface;  astrosclereids 
in  the  fruit  column;  aleurone  grains  roughened  on  the  surface,  contain- 
ing globoids,  rarely  single  crystalloids. 

Shikimi.  Endocarp  cells  highest  (up  to  400  jj.)  on  under  side  of 
the  fruit  cavity  (the  side  furthest  from  the  dehiscence  surface) ,  abruptly 
passing  into  cells  of  dehiscence  surface;  rounded  stone  cells  in  the  fruit 
column;  aleurone  grains  distinct,  smooth,  and  lustrous,  containing 
i  to  3  distinct  crystalloids  and  many  globoids. 

Tschirch  and  Oesterle  describe  the  following  test:  Grind  a  single 
carpel  from  which  the  seed  has  been  previously  removed,  and  boil  a 
few  minutes  with  1-2  cc.  of  alcohol.  Decant  off  the  liquid  and  add  water. 
If  the  material  is  shikimi,  the  liquid  remains  clear;  if  star- anise,  it  becomes 
cloudy,  owing  to  the  presence  of  anethol.  If  the  alcoholic  extract  from 
shikimi  is  allowed  to  evaporate  on  a  watch-glass,  a  large  number  of  beau- 
tiful crystals  of  shikiminic  acid  appear,  but  the  extract  from  star-anise 
yields  only  a  few  indistinct  crystals. 

Lenz  shakes  the  diluted  alcoholic  liquid  with  freshly  rectified  petro- 
leum ether  boiling  below  60°,  and  evaporates  the  ethereal  solution.  From 


SHIKIM1.     VANILLA.  573 

star-anise  a  yellow  oil  with  an  anise  odor  is  obtained,  from   shikimi  a 
scarcely  visible  residue  with  a  bedbug  odor. 

Vogl  and  some  other  authors  find  the  shikiminic  acid  test  unreliable. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  Star-anise,  p.  571. 

VANILLA. 

An  epiphytic  orchid  (Vanilla  planifolia  Andrew,  order  Orchidacea), 
yields  the  so-called  vanilla  beans  of  commerce.  The  term  "  bean " 
as  applied  to  this  fruit  is  a  misnomer,  as  the  plant  is  not  a  legume,  and 
both  the  fruit  and  seeds  are  radically  unlike  those  of  legumes.  The 
plant  is  a  native  of  Mexico,  whence  the  finest  grade  of  vanilla  is  still 
obtained,  but  it  is  cultivated  in  South  America,  Reunion  (Bourbon 
vanilla),  the  East  African  Islands,  Tahiti,  Java,  Ceylon,  and  various 
tropical  regions. 

Mexican  vanilla  is  almost  entirely  consumed  in  the  United  States, 
the  European  market  being  largely  supplied  from  Reunion  and  Mauri- 
tius. Tahiti  vanilla  has  a  rank  flavor  which  quite  unfits  it  for  use  as  a 
condiment. 

The  ripe  fruits  are  from  12-20  mm.  long,  in  cross-section  rounded 
triangular,  about  the  size  of  a  small  lead  pencil.  They  are  one-celled 
capsules  formed  by  the  union  of  three  fruit  leaves,  but  dehiscing  into 
two  longitudinal  valves  of  unequal  size.  The  fruits  ripen  in  from  seven 
to  nine  months;  they  are  picked,  however,  when  fully  formed  but  only 
partially  matured.  The  drying  is  effected  either  by  sunshine,  artificial 
heat,  or  calcium  chloride,  and  is  supplemented  by  a  sweating  process, 
which  develops  the  delightful  aroma  so  characteristic  of  the  commercial 
product.  When  ready  for  the  market  the  fruits  are  tough,  flexible,  dark 
brown,  nearly  black,  with  an  oily  luster,  and  are  often  coated  with  a  bloom 
of  fine  crystals.  They  are  marked  by  numerous  longitudinal  furrows 
and  taper  toward  both  ends,  bearing  at  the  apex  a  small  head  with  a 
shallow  depression.  After  soaking  in  water  they  swell  to  their  original 
triangular  shape.  In  cross-section  (Fig.  490)  the  fruit  is  one-celled, 
containing  great  numbers  of  minute  black  seeds  borne  on  six  forked 
placentae  and  embedded  in  a  clear  yellow  balsam. 

The  chief  flavoring  principle  of  vanilla  is  not  an  essential  oil  but  a 
crystalline  solid,  vanillin,  present  in  amounts  ranging  from  1.5  to  3.0 
per  cent.  In  V.  pompona  Schiede,  V.  Guyamnsis  Split.,  V.  palmarnm 


574  SPICES  AMD   CONDIMENTS. 

Lindl.,  and  V.  aromatica  Sw.,  the  content  of  vanillin  is  much  smaller,  while 
in  V.  inodora  it  is  entirely  absent.  Vanillin  occurs  in  considerable  amount 
in  the  sap  of  coniferous  and  other  woods,  from  which  formerly  it  was 


FIG.  490.     Vanilla   (Vanilla  planifolia).     Cross  section  of  fruit.     X8.     (BERG.) 

prepared.     It  has  also  been  found  in  Siam  benzoin  and  in  raw  beet  sugar. 
Synthetic  vanillin  is  now  made  in  large  quantities  from  oil  of  cloves. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  beans,  after  soaking  in  water,  serve  for  studying  not  only  the 
macroscopic  structure,  but  for  cutting  microscopic  cross-sections  and 
preparing  surface  mounts. 

Pericarp,  i.  The  Epicarp  (Figs.  491  and  492,  ep)  consists  of  thick- 
walled,  finely  porous  cells,  40-80  /*  in  diameter,  arranged  in  longitudinal 
rows.  Small  stomata  of  elliptical,  often  nearly  circular,  form  occur 
sparingly.  In  cross-section  a  thin,  yellow  cuticle  is  evident.  Brown 
bodies  (10  /*)  embedded  in  a  granular  ground  substance,  also  short  pris- 
matic crystals  of  calcium  oxalate,  and  less  often  crystals  of  vanillin,  are 
the  cell-contents. 

2.  The  Hypoderm  Cells  are  larger  and  thicker- walled  than  those  of 
the  epicarp.  They  are  more  or  less  collenchymatously  thickened  and 
longitudinally  elongated  and  have  distinctly  beaded  walls.  In  Mexican, 
Panama,  Honduras,  and  some  other  Central  American  varieties,  the 
pores  are  greatly  elongated,  usually  spirally,  less  often  longitudinally 
or  transversely,  giving  the  tissue  a  highly  characteristic  appearance. 
This  peculiar  structure  is  not  found  in  Bourbon,  South  American,  or  the 
other  common  varieties,  the  pores  being  either  round  or  oval. 


MANILLA. 


575 


3.  Mesocarp  (Figs.  491  and  493,  p).  This  is  a  loose  parenchyma 
of  large,  thin- walled  cells  often  150/4  in  diameter,  with  dark-colored 
contents.  Here  and  there  narrow  but  elongated  cells,  commonly  arranged 
end  to  end  in  longitudinal  rows,  contain  large  bundles  of  extraordinarily 
long  raphides  of  calcium  oxalate  reaching  500  JJL  in  length,  which,  in 
the  .preparation  of  the  specimen,  are  often  broken  into  short  pieces. 
They  are  best  seen  after  treating  tangential  sections  with  alkali.  To 
demonstrate  the  presence  of  vanillin,  mount  a  cross-section  in  5  per  cent 
phloroglucin  solution  and  draw  a  drop  of  sulphuric  acid  under  the 


FIG.  491.     Vanilla.     Cross  section  of  pericarp,     ep  epicarp;    p  mesocarp  with  K  crystals; 
pi  inner  layers  of  mesocarp;    s  papillae  of  endocarp.    Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

cover-glass.  A  magnificent  carmine  color  appears  immediately.  The 
numerous  bundles  running  through  the  mesocarp  are  of  the  collateral 
or  endogenous  type,  consisting  of  spiral  and  reticulated  vessels,  jointed 
porous  elements,  sieve  tubes,  and  bast  fibers.  Tschirch  and  Oesterle  have 
noted  that  the  pores  of  the  latter  are  oval  and  are  not  accompanied  by 
the  diagonal  fissures  characteristic  of  most  bast  fibers.  The  cells  of 
the  inner  mesocarp  are  smaller  than  in  the  outer  and  middle  layers. 

4.  The  Inner  Epidermis  between  the  three  pairs  of  placentae  bears 
numerous  thin-walled,  glandular  papillae  (s)  about  300  /t  long,  filled  with 


576 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


balsam.     Tschirch  and  Oesterle  find  that  the  secretion  is  formed  between 
the  cuticle  and  the  cell-wall  proper.     The  epidermis  on  the  placentae  is 


FIG.  492.     Vanilla.     Outer  layers  of  fruit  in  surface  view,     ep  epicarp  with  v  crystals  of 
calcium  oxalate;   ^parenchyma.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

of  thin-walled,  elongated  elements.     On  the  surface  between  the  mem- 
bers of  each  pair  of  placentae,  the  epidermal  and  subepidermal  layers 

o 


FIG.  493.     Vanilla.     Longitudinal  section  of  fruit  flesh,     p  parenchyma  with  o  raphides; 
sp  spiral  vessel;    n  pitted  vessel.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

are  made  up  of  longitudinal  bundles  of  thread-like  mucilaginous  cells 
which  serve  as  a  conducting  tissue  for  the  pollen  tubes.  They  have 
been  studied  by  Busse,  Tschirch,  and  others. 


MANILLA. 


Spermoderm  (Fig.  494).      The  exceedingly  minute  black  seeds  (less 
than  0.5  mm.  long  and  about  two-thirds  as  broad)  have  been  aptly  com- 


FIG.  494.     Vanilla.     Elements  of  seed.     S  whole  seed,   under  a  lens;    ep  epidermis;    p 
parenchyma;   E  embryo.     (MOELLER.) 

pared  by  T.  F.  Hanausek  to  gunpowder.  Owing  to  the  dark-colored 
pigment  in  the  spermoderm,  the  seeds  must  be  boiled  with  alkali  and 
crushed  before  any  structure  whatever  is  evident. 

1.  The  Outer  Epidermal  Cells   (ep)   are  polygonal,   15-30  fjL   broad 
and  reach  75  fj.  in  length.    After  boiling  with  alkali,  they  are  still  dark 
brown,  but  are  sufficiently  transparent  to  show  that  the  cavity  is  reduced 
to  a  narrow  slit,  owing  to  the  thickened  outer  and  side  walls. 

2.  The  Inner  Layers  (p)  are  of  elongated,  parenchymatous  cells,  which, 
like  those  of  the  epidermis,  are  of  a  brown  color. 

Embryo  (E).     The  endosperm  being  absent,  the  kernel  of  the  seed 
consists  entirely  of  the  embryo,  which  is  usually  undeveloped. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole  Vanilla  seldom  reaches  the  consumer,  but  is  used  by  manu- 
facturers and  apothecaries  in  the  preparation  of  tincture  or  extract  of 
vanilla.  Although  the  vanilla  may  not  be  of  the  grade  represented,  or 
may  have  been  previously  robbed  of  a  portion  of  its  flavoring  principles, 
the  fruits  themselves  cannot  be  successfully  imitated.  Chemical  means 
must  be  resorted  to  for  the  detection  of  Peru  balsam,  benzoic  acid,  and 
other  materials  with  which  the  fruits  are  sometimes  treated,  also  to  secure 
evidence  of  exhaustion.  Substitution  of  Pompona  vanilla  or  the  fruits 
of  other  inferior  species  may  be  detected  by  macroscopic  examination. 

Ground  Vanilla  is  an  article  of  commerce  used  by  some  manufacturers, 
who  rind  it  more  easily  extracted  than  the  whole  fruit.  A  preparation 
of  the  ground  fruit  with  sugar  is  also  on  the  market  for  domestic  use. 
Both  of  these  are  subjects  for  microscopic  examination.  In  certain  dry 
preparations,  no  vanilla  product  at  all  is  present,  the  flavor  being  due 


57$  SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 

to  artificial  vanillin  or  coumarin,  or  both.  In  such  cases  the  absence  of 
the  histological  elements  of  true  vanilla  is  established  by  microscopical 
examination,  and  the  presence  of  vanillin  or  coumarin  is  determined 
by  chemical  analysis. 

The  identification  of  vanilla  in  powder  form  requires  great  care  on 
the  part  of  the  microscopist.  The  balsam  papillae  (Fig.  491,  s),  although 
the  most  characteristic  of  the  fruit  tissues,  owing  to  their  delicate  structure, 
are  seldom  found  intact  in  the  powder.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
fruit  flesh  is  of  parenchyma  with  no  distinctive  characters,  which,  like  the 
epidermis,  might  easily  be  confounded  with  the  corresponding  tissues 
of  other  fruits.  Of  value  in  identification  are  the  exceedingly  long, 
although  often  broken,  raphides  (Fig.  493,  0),.  also  in  lesser  degree  the 
elements  of  the  bundles  (Fig.  493,  sp,  n). 

Whole  seeds  (Fig.  494,  5)  occur  in  large  numbers  in  the  ground 
product.  After  boiling  with  alkali,  the  epidermal  cells  (ep)  are  recognized 
by  their  brown  color  and  thick  walls. 

Tonka  beans  (p.  273)  are  detected  by  their  characteristic  palisade 
cells  and  column  cells. 

Vanilla  Extracts  are  grossly  adulterated  with  tonka-bean  extract, 
synthetic  vanillin,  and  coumarin,  caramel  being  employed  to  imitate  the 
appearance  of  the  genuine  extract.  Obviously  the  detection  of  these 
forms  of  adulteration  falls  to  the  chemist  and  not  the  microscopist. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:   Berg  (3);   Hanausek,  T.  F.  (10,  16,  48); 
Mace  (26);  Meyer,  A.  (27);  Moeller  (29,  30,  32);  Molisch  (33);  Planchon  et  Collin 
(34);  Schimper  (37);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (43,  45). 
BUSSE:  Studien  iiber  die  Vanille.     Arb.  Kaiserl.  Ges.  1898, 15,  i. 
HARTWICH:  Ueber  die  Frucht  der  Vanilla  Guianensis.     Ber.  pharm.  Ges.  1895,  0,381, 
JELLIFFE:  Vanilla,  Microscopy  of  Fruit.     Journ.  Pharm.  1898,  5,  35. 
TSCHIRCH:    Die   Tela    conductrix    der  Vanillefrucht.      Schw.  Woch.  Chem.  Pharm. 
1889. 

VANILLON. 

The  fruits  of  Vanilla  pompona  Schiede,  known  in  the  trade  as  pom- 
pona  or  La  Guayra  vanilla,  also  as  vanillon,  are  shorter  than  those  of 
genuine  vanilla  (maximum  length  15  cm.)  and  much  thicker  (maximum 
25  mm.).  Their  odor  is  different  from  true  vanilla,  resembling  more 
that  of  the  tonka  bean  and  benzoin.  The  pods  of  Guiana  vanilla  (V. 
Guyanensis  Split.)  are  as  long  as  the  genuine,  but  three  or  four  times 


VANILLON.    BAYBERRY. 


579 


as  broad,  while  those  of  palm  vanilla  (V.  palmarum  Lindl.),  also 
obtained  from  Guiana,  are  but  5  cm.  long  and  15  mm.  broad.  Of 
these  only  pompona  vanilla  is  of  commercial  importance. 

HISTOLOGY. 

This  species  is  characterized  by  the  large  cells  of  both  the  pericarp 
and  hypoderm.     The  epicarp  cells  (Fig.  495)  are  about  400  /*  long  and 

P 


FIG.  495.     Vanillon  (Vanilla  Pompona).     Surface  view  of  ep  epicarp  and  p  hypoderm. 

X  1 60.     (MOELLER.) 

150  jj.  broad;  the  stomata,  however,  are  small  (60  //).  Even  larger 
than  the  epicarp  cells  are  those  of  the  hypoderm,  which  never  have 
spirally  elongated  pores. 

BAYBERRY. 

The  bay-tree  or  laurel  of  the  ancients  (Laurus  nobilis  L.,  order  Laura- 
ce&)  is  still  grown  in  the  Levant.     It  should 
not  be  confused  with  Myrica  acris  Schwarz, 
the  leaves  of  which  are  used  for  the  prepara- 
t  on  of  bay  rum. 

The  dried  fruit  (Fig.  496)  is  ovate  or  glob-  FlG  4Q6.  Bayberries  (Lau- 
ular,  8-12  mm.  in  diameter,  lustrous,  dark  ™  ™b»^>  natural  size- 
brown  or  green,  with  numerous  wrinkles  on 

the  surface.  It  has  a  brittle  shell,  consisting  of  united  pericarp  and  sper- 
moderm,  within  which  is  an  embryo  with  two  fleshy  cotyledons. 


58° 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 
HISTOLOGY. 


Pericarp  (Fig.  497).     i.  The  Epicarp  (epi)  consists  of  small  polyg- 
onal cells  with  a  reticulated  cuticle,  and  occasional  stomata. 


mes 


FlG.  497.      Bayberry.      Shell   in    cross    section.      Pericarp    consists  of   epi   epicarp;    mes 
mesocarp  with  oil  oil  cells,  and  end  endocarp;    61  spermoderm.     (MOELLER.) 

2.  Hypoderm.     This  consists  of  small  cells  similar  to  those  of  the 
epicarp. 

3.  Mesocarp  (mes).     Numerous  oil  cells  (oil)  are  distributed  through 
the   parenchymatous   ground   tissue.     They  contain   either  essential   oil 
or  resin. 

4.  Endocarp  (end).     The  colorless  stone  cells  are  radially  elongated 


BAYBERRY. 


581 


upward  of  80  /*  high.    In  surface  view  they  are  deeply  sinuous  in  out- 
line (Fig.  498). 


FIG.  498.     Bayberry.     Endocarp  in  surface  view.     (MoELLER.) 


Spermoderm  (Fig.  497,  S).  The  cells  are  thin-walled,  and  more  or 
less  compressed.  Through  this  tissue  pass  the  raphe  and  its  branches. 

Embryo  (Fig.  499).  The  epidermal  cells  are  small;  those  further 
inward  larger  (up  to  100  /*).  Most  of  the  cells  contain  starch  grains 


FlG.  499.     Bayberry.     Cotyledon  in  cross  section,  showing  starch  grains.     (MOELLER.) 


up  to  8  /£,  occurring  singly  or  in  small  aggregates;    some  however  are 
filled  with  colorless  essential  oil. 


S82  SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  palisade  stone  cells  of  the  endocarp,  sinuous  in  surface  view  (Fig. 
498),  and  the  small  starch  grains  CFig.  499)  are  the  important  elements. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:    Moeller  (30,  31);    Planchon  et  Collin 
(34);  Vogl  (45). 

JUNIPER   BERRY. 

The  juniper  (Juniperus  communis  L.)  is  a  well-known  forest  tree 
growing  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.     It  does  not,  like  most  gymno- 

sperms,  bear  a  cone,  but  a  round  berry 
about  the  size  of  a  large  blueberry,  which 
it  further  resembles  in  having  a  bloom  of 
a  gray-blue  color.  Strictly  speaking,  it  is 
not  a  fruit.  At  the  time  of  fertilization 
the  three  ovules,  like  those  of  all  other 
gymnosperms,  are  naked  in  the  axils  of 

but 


size.    II  cross  section,   enlarged,   velopment    the    bracts    close    about    the 

(TSCHIRCH.)  1  J  1  j  r 

ovules  and  coalesce  at  the  edges,  form- 
ing the  globular  berry  (Fig.  500). 

At  the  apex  of  the  berry  three  radiating  lines  mark  where  the  three 
bracts  meet,  while  midway  between  these  lines  the  small  extremities  of 
the  bracts  are  evident  as  three  minute  protuberances. 

Tschirch  and  Oesterle  observe  that  these  berries  are  morphologically 
closely  related  to  true  fruits,  the  chief  difference  being  that  in  the  latter 
the  metamorphosed  leaves  which  form  the  ovary  are  united  from  the 
first,  whereas  in  the  former  this  union  does  not  take  place  until  after 
fertilization.  Each  seed  is  united  with  the  fruit  on  the  outer  side  except 
at  the  apex,  but  is  free  on  the  inner  side.  The  fruit  has  an  agreeable 
resinous  odor  and  taste. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Dried  juniper  berries,  as  obtained  from  the  apothecary,  may  be  used 
for  studying  the  gross  anatomy  of  the  fruit,  also  the  microscopic  structure 
of  the  principal  tissues,  although  more  satisfactory  results  are  obtained 
with  fresh  berries,  especially  if  picked  at  different  stages  of  ripeness. 


JUNIPER.  BERRY.  583 

For  convenience,  the  tissues  are  here  designated  by  the  same  terms 
as  are  employed  for  true  fruits. 

Pericarp  (Fig.  501).  The  Epicarp  Cells  (Fig.  502,  ep)  in  surface 
view  are  rounded  polygonal,  with  thick  walls  pierced  here  and  there 
by  pores.  Division  into  daughter  cells  is  often  apparent.  A  brown 
granular  substance  fills  the  cells.  On  the  edges  where  the  bracts  meet, 
these  epidermal  cells  are  extended  so  as  to  form  blunt  papillae. 

2.  Fruit  Flesh  (p).  The  rounded,  sac-like  cells  of  the  ground  tissue 
are  so  loosely  united  that  they  separate  readily  on  pressing  with  the  cover- 
glass.  In  this  tissue  are  large  resin  cavities  often  i  mm.  broad  and  twice 
as  long,  lined  on  the  inner  surface  by  a  layer  of  secreting  cells.  On 


FIG.  501.     Juniper  Berry.     Cross  section  of  seed,  and  enveloping  tissues.     (TscniRCH.) 


removing  the  angular  seeds  from  the  fruit,  one  or  more  of  these  sacs 
filled  with  solid  resin  often  remain  attached  to  the  surface.  The  con- 
spicuous elements  of  the  fibro-vascular  bundles  are  numerous  bast  fibers 
and  reticulated  vessels,  also  a  few  spiral  vessels. 

Spermoderm.  On  the  outer  side  where  the  seed  is  united  with  the 
fruit  flesh  no  demarcation  between  the  tissues  of  the  two  is  evident; 
but  on  the  free  inner  surface  there  are  five  distinct  layers. 

i    The  Outer  Epidermis  and   2.  The  Subepidermal  Coat  each  con- 
sists of  a  single  layer  of  thin-walled  ceUs,  the  former  separating  r 
from  the  latter  in  cross-section. 

3.  Sclerenchyma  (Fig.  5°',  *);  The  dense  '""""f  ^  T^ 
in  thickness  from  two  to  over  ten  cell  layers.  Each  of  the  thick-walled, 


584 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


porous  stone  cells  contains  in  its  narrow  cavity  a  beautiful  crystal  of 
calcium  oxalate. 

4.  Compressed  Cells  form  the  fourth  layer,  and 

5.  An  Inner  Epidermis  of  longitudinally  elongated,  thin- walled  cells 
completes  the  spermoderm. 

Perisperm.     This  is  a  thin  membrane  of  several  layers  of  parenchyma, 


sc 


FlG.  502.     Juniper  Berry.     Elements  in  surface  view,     ep  epicarp;  p  cells  from  fruit  flesh; 
sc  stone  cells  with  crystals,  from  spermoderm.     (MOELLER.) 

of  which  only  the  longitudinally-elongated  cells  of  the  outer  layer  are 
well  preserved. 

Endosperm.  Tschirch  and  Oesterle  have  noted  that  the  outer  wall  of 
the  outer  cell  layer  consists  of:  (i)  an  outer  cuticularize"d  lamella  of 
minute  rod-like  elements  appearing  granular  in  surface  view;  (2)  a  yellow 
middle  lamella,  also  cuticularized,  and  (3)  an  inner  membrane  of  cellu- 
lose. The  endosperm  cells  contain  aleurone  grains  up  to  8  ju  and  fat. 

The  Embryo  is  axially  located  and  consists  of  a  radicle  about  2  mm. 
long  and  two  flattened  cotyledons  about  half  the  length  of  the  radicle. 
The  cell-contents  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  endosperm. 


JUNIPER  BERRY.     CASSIA.  585 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Juniper  berries  are  used  in  medicine  and  very  extensively  in  making 
gin.  The  residue  from  the  distilleries  is  a  pepper  adulterant. 

The  epicarp  cells  (Fig.  502,  ep),  especially  the  papillae  from  the  sutures, 
the  rounded  pulp  cells  (p),  and  the  stone  cells  (sc)  of  the  spermoderm  each 
containing  a  crystal,  are  the  elements  worthy  of  special  notice. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Meyer  (24);  Moeller  (28,  29);  Planchon 
et  Collin  (34);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (37);  Villiers  et  Collin  (39). 

BARKS. 

The  only  barks  of  importance  as  food  products  are  cinnamon,  cassia, 
and  a  few  others  used  occasionally  as  spices. 

All  of  these  contain  conspicuous  stone  cells  and  most  of  them  charac- 
teristic starch  grains,  also  bast  fibers  and  cork  cells. 

The  general  structure  of  barks  is  discussed  on  p.  40. 

CASSIA    (CINNAMON). 

Cassia  (known  in  retail  trade  as  cinnamon)  is  the  bark  of  various 
species  of  Cinnamomum  (order  Lauraceaf). 

Three  leading  sorts,  each  with  distinct  physical  characters,  are  recog- 
nized by  English  and  American  importers:  (i)  China  or  Canton,  (2) 
Batavia,  and  (3)  Saigon. 

Malabar,  Indian  and  other  cassias  are  of  comparatively  small  im- 
portance. 

China  or  Canton  Cassia,  the  Cassia  lignea  of  the  pharmacists,  is  the 
commonest  and  also  the  cheapest  grade.  The  average  wholesale  price 
is  about  half  that  of  Batavia  and  one-fifth  that  of  Saigon.  The  tree 
from  which  it  is  obtained  (C.  Cassia  BL,  C.  aromaticum  Nees.)  is  a  small 
evergreen  growing  in  .southeastern  China.  The  commercial  bark  is 
unscraped  or  only  partially  scraped,  brown-gray,  0.2-3.0  mm.  thick, 
more  or  less  convolute.  It  is  commonly  packed  in  mats  containing  two 
bundles  about  50  cm.  long,  weighing  i  kg.  each.  The  outer  part  of  the 
bundles  consists  of  long  pieces,  the  inner  part  of  chips  and  often  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  dirt.  Broken  cassia  or  chips  consisting  of  short 
pieces  with  more  or  less  dirt  and  other  impurities  is  packed  in  bales. 


5^6  SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 

Winton,  Ogden  and  Mitchell  found  in  samples  of  whole  China  cassia 
from  American  importers  3.01-5.58  per  cent  of  ash  and  0.93-1.64  per 
cent  of  essential  oil.  One  sample  of  chips  obviously  unfit  for  consump- 
tion contained  20  per  cent  of  ash  and  15.7  per  cent  of  sand. 

Batavia  Cassia  is  probably  obtained  from  C.  Burmanni  Bl.  The 
tightly-rolled  quills  are  light  buff  or  red-brown,  0.5-2  mm.  thick,  often 
50-75  cm.  long.  Light-colored  thread-like  bast-fiber  groups  are  evident 
on  close  inspection  of  the  outer  surface.  This  grade  is  distinguished 
from  China  and  Saigon  by  the  slimy,  glutinous  mass  formed  on  treat- 
ment of  the  powdered  material  with  water,  also  by  the  higher  percentage 
of  alcohol  extract  (11-17  Per  cent).  The  flavor  is  moderately  pungent 
and  distinctly  mucilaginous. 

Saigon  Cassia,  the  most  pungent  and  expensive  of  all  cassia  and 
cinnamon  barks,  is  obtained  from  a  tree  grown  in  Cochin-China,  stated 
to  be  C.  Loureirii  (Laurus  cinnamomum  Lour.).  The  bark  varies 
from  a  fraction  of  a  millimeter  to  over  5  mm.  in  thickness;  the  thin 
being  chocolate-brown,  the  thick,  gray-brown.  Usually  it  is  put  up  in 
bundles  about  30  cm.  long,  and  weighing  1.5-2  kg.,  each  consisting 
entirely  of  thick,  medium  or  thin  bark.  Broken  Saigon  (chips)  often  con- 
tains pieces  5-10  mm.  thick. 

The  samples  examined  by  Winton,  Ogden  and  Mitchell  contained 
on  the  average  over  4  per  cent  of  essential  oil,  and  in  some  cases  over 
5  per  cent. 

Malabar  Cassia  and  Cassia  Vera  are  terms  loosely  applied  to  inferior 
grades  of  uncertain  origin. 

Indian  Cassia  comes  into  the  market  in  small  amount  from  Tra van- 
core  and  other  regions. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Transverse  and  longitudinal  sections  are  readily  cut  after  soaking 
over  night  in  water.  These,  as  well  as  the  powdered  material,  are  ex- 
amined directly  in  water  (noting  especially  the  starch  grains)  and  again 
after  treatment  with  alkali. 

China  Cassia,  i.  The  Epidermis,  which  is  found  only  in  young  bark 
is  strongly  cuticularized. 

2.  Cork  (Fig.  503,  su).  The  cells  of  the  outer  layers  are  of  the  usual 
thin-walled  type,  those  further  inward  are  stone  cork  with  uniformly 
thickened  porous  walls,  while  those  in  -the  layer  adjoining  the  phellogen 
are  thickened  on  the  outer  and  radial  sides  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form 


CASSIA. 


587 


in  cross-section  a  series  of  arches.  The  pnellogen  or  active  layer  is 
recognized  by  the  thin  walls.  Brown  contents  are  often  present  in  the 
cork  cells,  particularly  those  with  thick  walls. 

3.  Cortex  (cor).    The  ground  parenchyma  is  of  flattened  cells  with 


sit- 


\cor 


FIG.  503.     China  Cassia  (Cinnamomum  Cassia).     Cross  section  of  bark,     su  cork  cells; 
cor  cortex;  scl  stone-cell  ring  (pericycle) ;  ph  bast.     (MOELLER.) 

rather  thick,  brown  walls.  Radial  partitions  often  divide  the  cells  into 
daughter  cells.  Distributed  through  this  ground  tissue  are  stone  cells, 
many  of  which  are  thickened  only  on  the  inner  side.  Both  the 
parenchyma  and  the  stone  cells  contain  rounded  starch  grains  (Fig. 
505,  B)  ranging  up  to  20  p  in  diameter  (mostly  over  10  //),  with  a 


588 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


more  or  less  distinct  hilum.     Most  of  the  grains  are  in  aggregates  of  2-4 
individuals 

4.  The  Pericycle  (scl)  in  the  young  stem  consists  of  groups  of  bast 
fibers  (Fig.  504,  b)  and  separating  parenchyma,  but  later  numerous  stone 


FIG.  504.  China  Cassia.  Radial  longitudinal  section  of  bark,  pr  parenchyma  of  cortex; 
bp  parenchyma  of  bast;  b  bast  fibers;  st  stone  cells;  sch  mucilage  cells;  5  sieve  tubes; 
m  medullary  rays.  X 160.  (MOELLER.) 

cells  are  formed,  which  after  a  time  make  up  the  greater  part  of  the  ring. 
The  bast  fibers  are  longer  and  thinner-walled  than  those  of  the  bast; 
the  stone  cells  are  larger  and  thicker- walled  than  those  of  the  cortex. 

5.  The  Bast  Zone  (ph),  as  seen  in  cross-section,  consists  of  broad 
radial  bands  of  phloem  elements  separated  by  narrow  medullary  rays. 
The  ground  tissue  of  the  phloem  is  a  parenchyma  of  narrow,  longitudi- 
nally elongated  cells,  among  which  are  distributed  larger  cells  containing 
mucilage  or  oil,  also  bast  fibers.  Numerous  starch  grains  like  those  of 
the  cortex  occur  in  the  parenchyma.  The  inner  membrane  of  the  oil 


CA1SSA.  589 

cells  secretes  essential  oil  and  resin,  which  either  forms  brown  masses 
in  the  cells  or  impregnates  the  tissues.  Sections  mounted  in  glycerine 
or  alcohol  often  show  the  thick,  colorless,  stratified  secondary  membrane 
of  the  mucilage  cells,  which  dissolves  on  addition  of  water.  Character- 
istic of  the  bast  fibers  are  their  moderate  length  (seldom  over  600  /£), 
spindle  shape,  thick  homogeneous  walls,  and  narrow  cavity.  In  the 
middle  they  vary  up  to  45  fi  in  diameter.  The  sieve  tubes  are  collapsed 
and  are  arranged  in  tangential  rows.  The  medullary  rays  are  usually 
two  cells  broad  except  at  the  more  or  less  funnel-shaped  outer  ends.  They 
contain  starch  grains  and  numerous  oxalate  needles. 

Batavia  Cassia,  being  scraped,  contains  little  cork  and  cortex  tissues. 

The  mucilage  cells,  though  rather  small,  are  numerous.  The  most 
characteristic  elements  are  the  starch  grains,  which  are  smaller  (usually 
less  than  10  //)  and  less  numerous  than  those  of  China  and  Saigon,  and 
the  numerous  oxalate  crystals,  chiefly  in  the  medullary  rays,  which,  as 
may  be  seen  after  treatment  with  alkali,  are  tabular  or  prismatic,  not 
needle-shaped.  These  characters,  with  the  peculiar  taste  and  the  slimy 
mass  formed  on  treating  the » powder  with  water,  are  well  marked. 

Saigon  Cassia.  The  thin  bark  has  practically  the  same  structure  as 
that  of  China  cassia;  the  thick  bark  (2-10  mm.)  is  characterized  by 
the  presence  of  large,  tangentially  elongated,  thick-walled  stone  cells 
of  the  bast,  which  are  arranged  side  by  side  in  enormous  radial  groups, 
often  1-2  mm.  long.  Two  or  more  cork  systems,  each  with  its  phellogen, 
are  often  present. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole  Cassia  of  the  three  common  sorts  may  be  distinguished  by 
the  general  appearance  and  the  characters  given  in  the  following  analyt- 
ical key: 

(a)  Needle-shaped  crystals  in  medullary  rays;   starch  grains  abundant,  mostly  over 
10  //;   alcohol  extract  under  10%. 

1.  Few  or  no  stone  cells  in  bast;  flavor  mild;  essential  oil  under  2% China. 

2.  Numerous  stone  cells  in  bast  of  thick  bark;  very  pungent;    essential  oil  2-6%. 

Saigon. 

(&)  Prismatic  crystals  in  medullary  rays;   starch  grains  not  abundant,  mostly  under 
10  p\  alcohol  extract  over  10%. 

3.  Flavor  mild,  distinctly  mucilaginous;   essential  oil  under  3% Batavia. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  microscopic  characters  of  the  thick 
and  thin  bark  are  somewhat  different,  and  that  the  chemical  composi- 
tion is  changed  by  exhaustion. 


590 


SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


Other  species  of  Cinnamomum  yielding  inferior  barks  are  occasionally 
substituted  for  real  cinnamon.  One  of  these  described  by  Micko  closely 
resembled  Batavia  cassia  in  its  structure  us  well  as  its  mucilaginous  prop- 
erties, but  was  scarcely  at  all  pungent. 

Ground  Cassia  ("  Cinnamon  ")  may  be  prepared  from  one  variety 
of  cassia,  or  from  a  mixture  of  several  varieties,  often  with  the  addition 
of  cassia  buds.  The  conspicuous  elements  common  to  all  the  cassia 
barks  are  rounded  starch  grains  (Fig.  505,  B),  usually  in  aggregates  of  2 


FIG.  505.  China  Cassia.  A  elements  of  the  powdered  bark:  bf  bast  fibers;  st  pericycle 
stone  cells;  stp  cortex  stone  cells;  pr  cortex  parenchyma;  bp  bast  parenchyma;  P 
sclerenchymatized  cork.  Xi6o.  B  starch  grains,  X 600.  (MOELLER.) 

to  4;  spindle-shaped  bast  fibers  (bf)  with  narrow  lumen;  stone  cells  (st), 
often  thickened  only  on  one  side  (stp) ;  and  brown  parenchyma.  Cork 
cells  (P)  are  present  if  the  bark  is  unscraped.  Oxalate  needles  (China, 
Saigon)  or  prisms  (Batavia)  may  be  seen  on  careful  examination.  All 
the  elements  named  but  the  starch  grains  are  best  studied  after  treat- 
ment with  alkali. 

The  elements  of  cassia  buds  are  described  in  the  following  section. 

Adulterants.  Exhausted  cassia;  cassia  chips,  containing  wood,  leaves, 
and  dirt;  bran;  biscuit;  millet;  oil  cakes;  nutshells;  foreign  barks;  saw- 
dust; mineral  matter. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Berg  (3);  Greenish  (14);  Hanausek,  T. 
F.  (10,  16);  Hassall  (19);  v.  Hohnel  (48);  Leach  (25);  Mace  (26);  Meyer,  A.  (27, 
28);  Moeller  (29,  30,  31,  32);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Schimper  (37);  Tschirch  u. 
Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (43,  45). 


CASSIA.     CASSIA  BUDS-  591 

BISCHOFF:  Vjschr.  offent.  Gesundheits.  1870,  22,  395. 

GARNIER:  Iitude  microscopique  et  chimique  de  diverses  poudres  de  cannelle.     Jour. 

Pharm.  9,  473. 
GICHARD:  Verfalschung  von  Zimmtrindenpulver.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.   1895, 

9,  281. 

HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:    Chips.     Ztschr.  osterr.  Apoth.-Ver.  1896,  34. 
HARTWICH:   Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  des  Zimmt.     Arch.  Pharm.  1901,  181. 
MALFATTI:  Eine  neue  Verfalschung  des  Zimmtpulvers.     Ztschr.   Nahr.-Unters.   Hyg. 

1891,  5,  5. 
MICKO:    Ueber   eine    falsche    Zimmtrinde.     Ztschr.    Unters.    Nahr.-Genussm.    1900, 

3,  305- 
PERROT:  Sur  1'origine  de  1'anneau  sclereux  des  canelles.     Jour,  pharm.  chim.  1890,  2, 

426. 

PFISTER:    Zur  Kenntniss  der  Zimmtrinden.     Forschber.  Lebensm.  Hyg.  1894,  1,  i. 
PFISTER:    Zur  Zimmtuntersuchung.     Forschber.  Lebensm.  Hyg.  1894,  1,  540. 
ScHMiTZ-DuMONT :  Ueber  eine  vermeintliche  Zimtfalschung.     Ztschr.  off.  Chem.  1904. 

CASSIA    BUDS. 

The  flowevs  of  a  Chinese  tree  (probably  Cinnamomum  Cassia  BL, 
which  also  yields  cassia  bark),  gathered  shortly  after  blooming,  are  known 
in  commerce  as  cassia  buds.  They  are  dark  brown,  woody,  club-  or 
top-shaped,  5-10  mm.  in  diameter,  with  a  short  stem  or  pedicel.  The 
perianth  forms  a  wrinkled,  urn-shaped  capsule,  turned  in  at  the  top, 
in  which  is  the  lighter-colored,  thick,  smooth,  one-celled  ovary.  In  the 
small  circular  opening  between  the  six  indistinct  perianth  lobes  is  the 
smooth  exposed  surface  of  the  ovary  with  the  style  or  its  scar. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  Pedicel,  or  flower  stem,  may  or  may  not  be  attached  to  the  bud. 
It  should  not  be  confused  with  the  narrow  under  portion  of  the  perianth. 

1.  The  Epidermis  consists  of  strongly  cuticularized  cells,  with  color- 
less walls,  similar  to  the  epidermal  cells  of  cloves,  and  thick- walled,  often 
crooked,  unicellular  hairs,  seldom  over  120.1*  l°ng  (Fig-   5°6>  ^)- 

2.  Cortex.     In  the  outer  layers  this  is  made  up  of  large  parenchyma 
cells  and  oil  cells ;  in  the  inner  layers,  of  smaller  cells.     The  parenchyma 
has  brown  walls  and  contains  small  ovate  or  spindle-shaped  simple  starch 
grains  and  needles  of  calcium  oxalate.     The  oil  cells  often   have  muci- 
laginous contents. 

3.  Sclerenchyma    Ring    (Peri cycle).      The    elements  are  bast   fibers 
and  stone  cells.     The  bast  fibers  are  in  closely  crowded  groups.     Some 
are  broad,  blunt,  unicellular,  with  broad  cavities  (/),  others  sharp-pointed 


592 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


and  jointed  (&/).  Both  forms  are  very  different  from  the  bast  fibers 
of  the  bark.  The  stone  cells  (st)  in  cross  section  appear  much  like  the 
bast  fibers,  but  are  usually  larger  (up  to  90  /*).  They  are  irregular  in 
form,  and  often  thickened  more  on  one  side  than  on  the  other. 

(4)  Bundles.     The  vessels  are  narrow   (15  /*),  mostly  reticulated  or 
scalariform,  less  often  spiral,  and  are  arranged  in  radial  rows. 

(5)  The  Pith  is  narrow. 

Perianth.     This  has  much  the  same  structure  as  the  pedicel,   but 
the  xylem  and  phloem  are  more  separated,  and  the  pith  in  the  basal  part 


FIG.  506.     Cassia  Buds  (Cinnamomum  Cassia). 

Elements  of  pedicel:  bf  bast  fibers;  /  elongated  sclerenchyma  cells;  st  stone  cells;  g 
vessels;  st  starch. 

Elements  of  perianth:  ep  epidermis;  h  hairs;  rp  cortex  parenchyma;  o  oil  cells;  bp 
bast  parenchyma. 

Elements  of  ovary:  ep}  epicarp  in  cross  section  and  surface  view,  with  c  cuticle;  }p 
sclerenchyma  of  mesocarp;  end  endocarp. 

Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

is  much  broader.  The  cortex  parenchyma  has  rather  thick  walls  and 
red-brown  contents,  becoming  blue  with  iron  chloride.  The  oil  cells  are 
30-80  fj.  in  diameter,  and  contain  red-brown  resinous  oil.  A  colorless, 
mucilaginous  parenchyma  with  small  crystal  rosettes  and  occasional 
large  crystals  forms  the  inner  epidermis  of  the  cavity. 

Ovary.  The  epicarp  (ep))  is  well  developed  on  the  smooth,  yellow, 
exposed  surface.  The  cuticle  is  thick,  and  penetrates  between  the  cells, 
giving  them  the  appearance  of  being  thick-walled.  It  is  distinguished 


CASSIA   BUDS.     CEYLON  CINNAMON,  593 

from  the  brown  cell  walls  by  its  lighter  color.     Beneath  the  epidermis 
is  a  layer  of  sclerenchyma  (//>).     The  seeds  are  undeveloped. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Ground  cinnamon  often  contains  both  cassia  bark  and  cassia  buds. 
The  buds  cost  more  than  China  and  Batavia  cassia,  and  are  more  pun- 
gent. Several  elements  serve  to  distinguish  the  buds  from  the  bark: 
(i)  thick-walled  crooked  hairs  (Fig.  506,  h)\  (2)  reticulated  and  scalari- 
form  vessels;  (3)  broad,  blunt  bast  fibers  (/)  with  broad  cavities;  (4) 
jointed  fibers  (£/).  Hairs  and  vessels  are  not  found  in  the  bark,  and  the 
bast  fibers  are  of  a  very  different  type.  The  bark  has  no  tissues  like 
the  epidermal  layers  of  the  pedicel,  perianth  (ep)  and  ovary  (epf).  The 
sclerenchyma  of  the  ovary  (fp)  is  also  characteristic.  Stone  cells  of 
much  the  same  type  occur  in  both  the  bark  and  the  buds.  The  starch 
grains  of  the  buds  are  not  in  aggregates  as  in  the  bark,  but  are  not 
distinguishable  from  the  single  grains  of  the  latter. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  Cassia,  p.  590. 

CEYLON   CINNAMON. 

True  cinnamon  is  obtained  from  the  young  branches  of  Cinnamomum 
Ceylonicum  Breyne,  a  small  tree  cultivated  in  Ceylon  and  parts  of  India. 
The  bark  is  carefully  separated  from  the  branches,  scraped,  dried,  and 
the  thin  pieces,  scarcely  0.5  mm.  thick,  are  curled  one  within  another 
so  as  to  form  sticks,  5-15  mm.  in  diameter  and  often  1-2  meters  long. 
On  the  outer  surface  the  scraped  bark  is  buff,  streaked  with  lighter-colored 
bast-fiber  bundles.  The  flavor  suggests  a  mixture  of  cassia  and  calamus. 

HISTOLOGY  AND  DIAGNOSIS. 

In  structure  cinnamon  (Fig.  507)  closely  resembles  cassia,  but  the 
stone  cells  of  the  pericycle  are  longer  and  more  uniformly  thickened, 
the  bast  fibers  are  narrower  and  more  numerous,  the  parenchyma  cells 
of  the  bast  are  smaller,  and  the  starch  grains  are  only  about  half  as  large 
(usually  6-8/0-  The  resemblance  between  cinnamon  and  Batavia 
cassia  in  these  details  is  much  closer,  particularly  as  regards  the  starch 
grains,  which  are  practically  identical  in  the  two  species.  Unlike  Batavia, 
but  like  China  cassia,  the  crystals  in  the  bast  are  needle-shaped. 


594 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


Fortunately  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  resort  to  microscopic  examination, 
as  the  product  is  usually  sold  whole,  and  can  be  readily  identified  by 
its  general  appearance  and  its  peculiar  flavor. 


FIG.  507.  Ceylon  Cinnamon  (Cinnamomum  Ceylonicum).  Cross  section  of  bark,  pr 
inner  layers  of  cortex  with  pb  primary  bast-fiber  bundle;  st  stone-cell  ring  (pericycle); 
bast  consists  of  b  bast  fibers,  5  sieve  tubes,  sch  mucilage  cells,  k  parenchyma  with  raphides, 
and  m  medullary  rays.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 


See  Cassia,  p.  590. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


CLOVE   BARK. 


The  bark  of  a  small  Brazilian  tree  (Dicypellium  caryophyllatum 
Nees.,  order  Lauracece)  is  variously  known  as  clove  bark,  clove  cassia, 
clove  cinnamon,  and  (in  pharmacy)  Cortex  cassia  caryophyllatus. 
Like  Ceylon  cinnamon  it  comes  into  the  market  in  compound  quills- 
The  bark  is  1-2  mm.  thick,  more  or  less  flaky  on  the  outer  surface,  finely 
striate  on  the  inner.  It  is  brittle,  and  breaks  with  a  smooth  fracture. 
Cross  sections  examined  with  the  naked  eye  show  a  thin  yellow  outer 
ring  and  a  broad  inner  zone  with  yellow  dots  in  a  red-brown  ground. 


CLOVE  BARK. 


HISTOLOGY. 


595 


i.  Cork.  The  cells  in  most  of  the  layers  are  thin-walled,  but  in 
two  or  more  layers  are  thickened  on  the  outer  side.  Only  traces  of  the 
cork  tissue  are  found  on  the  commercial  bark. 


FIG.  508.     Ceylon    Cinnamon.     Tangential    section    of    bark,     p    bast    parenchyma;     sch 
mucilage  cells;    b  bast  fibers;    s  sieve  tubes;    m  medullary  rays.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

2.  Phelloderm  (Fig.  509,  P).    The  inner  walls  of  the  cells  are  strongly 
thickened  and  porous. 

3.  Cortex.     The  tissue  is  of  parenchyma  cells  with  a  few  oil  cells. 

4.  Pericycle.     A  ring  of  stone  cells  (st)  thickened  chiefly  on  the  inner 
side  separates  the  cortex  from  the  bast. 

5.  Bast.     Tangential    layers    of    parenchyma    cells    with    occasional 
oil  cells  (oe)  alternate  with  groups  of  sieve  tubes  (s).     In  old  bark  the 
parenchyma  is  replaced  here  and  there  by  stone-cell  groups  (sc).     Bast 
fibers  are  absent.     The  primary  medullary  rays  broaden  greatly  at  the 
outer   ends,  separating   the   phloem   into   wedge-shaped   groups,   which 
extend  as  far  as  the  pericycle.     The  parenchyma  of  the  bast  and  the 


596 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


medullary  rays  contains  numerous  oxalate  needles,  also  formless  lumps 
of  starch. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Starch  occurs  only  in  small  amount  and  not  in  well-formed  grains. 
The  cells  of  the  pericycle  (Fig.  509,  st)  and  phelloderm  (P),  both  thickened 


oe 


FIG.  509.  Clove  Bark  (Dicypellium  caryophyllatum).  P  sclerenchymatized  cork;  rp 
cortex;  st  stone-cell  ring  (pericycle);  bast  consists  of  s  sieve  tubes,  bp  parenchyma, 
sc  stone  cells,  oe  oil  cells,  K  raphides  cells,  m  primary  and  m2  secondary  medullary  rays. 

X  1 60.       (MOELLER.) 

on  one  side,  also  the  oil  cells  and  oxalate  needles,  are  evident  after 
treatment  with  alkali. 

Vogl  describes  a  substitute  which  he  regards  as  a  variety  of  Cinna- 
momum  Culilawan.  The  structure  is  much  like  that  of  other  species  of 
cinnamon. 

Another  substitute  described  by  Moeller,  known  as  Cortex  caryo- 
phyllata  (Fig.  511),  is  characterized  by  the  intensely  red-brown  con- 


CLOVE  BARK.     CANELLA  BARK. 


597 


tents  of  the  parenchyma  elements,  and  the  tangential  rows  of  fibers  in 
the  bast. 

m 


FIG.  510.    Clove  Bark.     Radial  longi-       FlG.  511.     False    Cinnamon   (^Cortex   caryophyl- 
tudinal  section  through  a  stone-cell  lata").      Cross    section   of   bark.     K',  K",  K'" 

group  of  the  bast,     sc  stone  cells;  three  layers  of  cork;   rp  cortex  parenchyma  with 

oe  oil  cells;     bp  bast  parenchyma;  oe  oil  cell  and  s  crystal  sand  cell;    b}  bast  fibers; 

s  sieve  tubes.     Xi6o.    (MoELLER.)  bp  sclerenchymatized  bast  parenchyma;  k  crystal 

cell;   m  medullary  rays.     (MOELLER.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Moeller  (26);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34); 
Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (37);  Vogl  (41). 

CANELLA    BARK. 

Canella  alba  Mussay  (order  Canellace<z)  grows  wild  in  the  West  Indies 
and  Florida.  The  bark,  known  as  white  bark  or  white  cinnamon,  is  a 
well-known  drug,  the  commercial  supply  coming  largely  from  the  Bahama 
Islands.  It  is  also  used  in  the  West  Indies  as  a  spice. 


598 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS 


The  bark  is  hard,  2-5  mm.  thick,  light  buff  or  reddish,  pitted  on  the 
outer  surface,  striated  on  the  -inner.  In  cross  section  numerous  yellow 
oil  cells  are  evident,  also  in  the  inner  bark  delicate  radiating  lines. 

HISTOLOGY. 

i.  Cork  (Fig.  512,  K).  Typical  cork  cells  form  the  outer  layers  of 
the  bark. 


cor 


FlG.  512.  Canella  Bark  (Canella  alba).  Cross  section.  su  outer  bark  consists  of  K  cork 
and  ph  sclerenchymatized  cork;  cor  cortex  with  starch  cells,  and  o  oil  cells;  ph  bast 
with  s  sieve  tubes  and  m  medullary  rays  containing  Kr  crystal  rossettes.  (TSCHIRCH.) 

2.  The  Phelloderm  (ph),  separated  by  the  phellogen  from  the  outer 
cork,  consists  of  several  layers  of  quadrilateral  stone  cells  intermixed 
with  cork-like  cells,  all  arranged  in  radial  rows. 


CANELLA  BARK.     GINGER. 

3.  Cortex    (cor).    The    parenchyma   contains    simple    or   compo 
starch  grains,  mostly  6-8  /*  (maximum  20  /*),  also  rosettes  of  calcium 
oxalate.     Large  oil  cells  with  rather  thick  cuticularized  walls  occur  here 
and  there. 

4.  Bast  (ph).    Tissues  like  those  of  the  cortex,  also  sieve  tubes  and 
single-rowed  medullary  rays   (m)  are  conspicuous.     An  oxalate  rosette 
occurs  in  nearly  every  medullary  cell.     Bast  fibers  are  found  only  between 
the  primary  and  secondary  bast,  and  there  but  sparingly. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  large  yellow  oil  cells  (Fig.  512',  0),  the  yellow  sclerenchymatized 
cork  cells  (ph)  of  the  phelloderm,  the  small  starch  grains,  and  the  oxalate 
rosettes  are  the  important  elements.  Sieve  plates  are  often  evident  in 
the  sieve  tubes.  Bast  fibers  are  almost  entirely  absent. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  611-674:   Hanausek,  T.  F.  (10);   v.  Hohnel  (48); 
Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (45). 
GREENISH:   Canella  Bark,  Pharm.  Jour.  1894. 

RHIZOMES. 

The  rhizomes  of  Zingiberaceous  plants  (ginger,  turmeric,  zedoary, 
and  galangal)  contain  about  half  their  weight  of  starch  in  the  form  of 
large  elongated  grains  with  excentric  hilum  and  distinct  rings.  Reticu- 
lated vessels  are  notable  elements. 

Sweet  flag,  the  only  other  rhizome  of  importance  as  a  spice,  contains 
very  small  rounded  starch  grains. 

The  general  structure  of  rhizomes  is  discussed  on  p.  44. 

GINGER. 

The  ginger  plant  (Zingiber  officinale  Roscoe,  order  Zingiberacea),  a 
native  of  Southern  Asia,  is  cultivated  throughout  the  tropics.  The  rhi- 
zomes (so-called  roots)  are  dug  in  January  or  February,  washed  and 
sun-dried  either  directly  or  after  scraping.  They  are  often  bleached 
with  chlorinated  lime  or  sulphurous  acid,  also  coated  with  chalk  or  gypsum. 
Chalk  not  only  improves  the  appearance  of  the  product,  but  in  addition 
protects  it  from  the  ravages  of  the  drug-store  beetle  and  other  insects. 
The  rhizomes  are  flattened  somewhat,  and  branched  on  one  or  both 
of  the  narrow  sides.  They  vary  in  breadth  from  10-25  mm.  and  in 


6oo 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


length  up  to   10  cm.     The  fracture  is  uneven,  with  protruding  fibers. 
Cross  sections  examined  under  a  lens  show  numerous  yellow  oil  cells. 

Jamaica,  the  finest  sort,  has  a  rather  slender  rhizome.  It  is  com- 
monly bleached,  and  often  coated  in  addition.  The  rhizomes  of  Cochin 
are  thicker,  and  come  into  the  market  either  scraped  or  bleached.  Cal- 
cutta and  African  are  unscraped  sorts,  distinguished  from  the  preceding 
by  their  dark-colored  corky  rind.  Japan  resembles  Cochin  in  appear- 
ance, but  is  usually  obtained  from  other  species  (Z.  Zerumbet  Roscoe, 
Z.  Cassumunar  Rxb.,  Z.  Mioga  Roscoe,  Z.  Cemenda  Rxb.,  etc.). 

HISTOLOGY. 

i.  Cork.  In  a  rind  0.4  mm.  thick  about  20  cell-layers  are  present. 
The  cells  are  large,  somewhat  flattened,  and  have  thin  brown  walls,  but 
no  content. 


ol 


FIG.  513.     Ginger  (Zingiher    officinale) .     Cross    section    of    rhizome,    en   endodermis;   jv 
fibre-vascular  bundles;  oil  oil  cell.     (MOELLER.) 

2.  Cortex.     Inside  the  cork  zone  is  a  zone  of  about  the  same  thick- 
ness, consisting  of  small  collapsed  parenchyma  cells  interspersed  with 


GINGER. 


60 1 


oil  cells.  Further  inward  the  parenchyma  cells  are  larger,  and  contain 
numerous  starch  grains  while  the  oil  cells  are  less  abundant.  The  con- 
tents of  each  oil  cell  are  contracted  into  a  resin  lump.  Bundles  occur 
sparingly  in  the  cortex. 

3.  Endodermis  (Fig.  513,  en).    The  cells  resemble  transversely  elon- 
gated parenchyma  cells,  but  their  walls  are  suberized,  and  they  con- 
tain no  starch. 

4.  Bundle  Zone  (jv).  Inside  the  endodermis  the  bundles  are  arranged 
close  together  in  a  circle.     The  vessels  are  broad  (50  /*),  with  reticulated 


FIG.  «:i4.     Ginger.     Longitudinal  section  of  rhizome,     h  oil  cells;    p  starch  parenchyma; 
g  vessels;  bf  bast  fibers.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

or  scalariform  thickenings  (Fig.  514,  g).  They  are  accompanied  by 
long  (up  to  6  mm.),  broad  (up  to  60  p)  fibers,  often  divided  by  cross  par- 
titions into  compartments.  The  walls  are  rather  thin,  and  have  pores 
crossed  by  diagonal  fissures. 

5.  The  Parenchyma  cells,  like  those  of  the  inner  cortex,  are  closely 
packed  with  starch  grains.     Oil  cells   (oil)  occur  here  and  there. 

The  starch  grains  (except  in  Japan  ginger)  are  simple,  flattened, 
ovate,  with  either  a  rounded  angle  or  a  tapering  point  at  the  smaller 
end.  Being  flattened,  they  appear  narrow  when  viewed  on  edge, 
excentric  hilum  is  always  in  the  pointed  end.  Rings  are  numerous,  but 
indistinct.  Most  of  the  grains  are  20-30  p  long,  although  smaller  grains 
as  well  as  larger  (up  to  50  p)  occur  sparingly.  T.  F.  Hanausek  was  the 


602  SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 

first  to  note  that  the  starch  grains  in  Japan  ginger  (or  at  least  certain 
kinds  known  under  that  name)  are  very  different  from  the  type. 
They  are  partly  large,  simple,  broadly  ovate,  with  very  distinct  rings, 
and  partly  small,  in  twins,  triplets,  and  larger  aggregates.  The  small 
grains  are  particularly  numerous. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Ground  Ginger  prepared  from  African  and  Calcutta  rhizomes  is  brown, 
while  that  prepared  from  Jamaica,  Cochin,  Japan,  and  other  scraped 
or  bleached  sorts  is  white  or  light  buff.  The  chief  elements  are  the 
characteristic  starch  grains  (which  make  up  fully  half  of  the  powder), 
reticulated  or  scalariform  vessels  (Fig.  514,  g),  broad  bast  fibers  (bf)  with 
rather  thin  walls,  and,  in  -the  case  of  undecorticated  sorts,  cork  cells. 
Large  ovate  starch  grains  (Fig.  513)  with  excentric  hilum  in  the  rounded- 
angular  or  pointed,  smaller  end  occur  in  all  varieties ;  small  grains  in 
twins,  triplets,  and  larger  aggregates  only  in  Japan  ginger. 

The  common  adulterants  are  exhausted  ginger,  cereal  products,  lin- 
seed meal,  and  other  ground  oil  cakes,  nutshells,  gypsum,  and  other 
mineral  substances.  In  America  rice  bran,  consisting  of  spermoderm 
with  more  or  less  starchy  matter  (p.  no),  is  often  used. 

Exhausted  Ginger  is  the  residue  after  treatment  with  water  in  the 
manufacture  of  ginger  ale  or  after  exhaustion  with  alcohol  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  ginger  extract.  In  the  former  case  the  product  is  deficient  in 
cold-water  extract,  in  the  latter  case  it  is  deficient  in  alcohol  extract. 
Microscopic  examination  is  of  no  service  in  detecting  these  residues. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:    Berg    (3);    Hassall  (19);    Mace  (26); 
Meyer,  A.  (10,  27);  Moeller  (29,  30,31,  32);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Schimper  (37); 
Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (43,  45,  48). 
BARTHELAT:  Tanninzellen  der  Zingiberaceen.     Jahr.  Pharm.  1894. 
BUCHWALD:   Ingwer.     Arb.  Kais.  Gesundh.  1899,  15,  229. 

HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Eine  neue  Ingwersorte.     Ztschr.  allg.  osterr.  Apoth.-Ver.  1883,  465. 
MEYER,  A.:  Ueber  die  Rhiz.  d.  offic.  Zingiberaceen.    Arch.  Pharm.  1881,  401. 
TSCHIRCH:  Zur  Untersuchung  von  Rhiz.  Zingiberis  und  Rhiz.  Zedoarie.    Schw.  Woch. 
Pharm.  Chem.  1905. 

TURMERIC. 

Curcuma,  or  turmeric,  is  the  rhizome  of  Curcuma  longa  L.  (order 
Zingiberacece),  a  plant  closely  related  to  ginger,  grown  in  India,  China, 
Cochin  China,  Java,  and  other  tropical  countries. 


TURMERIC.  603 

The  main  rhizome  (round  turmeric)  is  ovate  or  pear-shaped,  up  to 
4  cm.  long  and  3  cm.  thick  (Fig.  515).  The -upper  part  is  encircled  by 
leaf -scars,  the  lower  part  is  marked  by  scars  of  the  secondary  rhizomes 
and  roots.  It  is  sliced  before  drying.  The  secondary  rhizomes  (long 
turmeric)  are  0.5-1.5  cm.  thick,  elongated,  indistinctly  ringed,  simple 
or  sparingly  branched. 

The  vitality  of  the  rhizomes  is  destroyed  by  scalding  previous  to  drying, 
thus  converting  the  grains  into  lumps,  to  which  the  mixture  of  oil  and 


FIG.    515.     Turmeric  (Curcuma  longa).     Primary  (round)  and  secondary  (long)  rhizomes. 

(HAGER.) 

curcumin  liberated  from  the  oil  cells  imparts  a  deep-yellow  color.  As 
found  on  the  market,  the  product  is  hard,  tough,  and  sinks  in  water. 
The  fractured  surface  is  smooth,  waxy,  of  an  orange-yellow  color.  As 
appears  in  cross  section,  the  rind  is  thicker  than  in  ginger,  constituting 
almost  one-quarter  of  the  thickness  of  the  rhizome.  It  cannot  be  removed 
by  scraping. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Turmeric  (Fig.  516)  closely  resembles  ginger  in  structure,  but  is 
distinguished  by  the  absence  of  bast  fibers.  The  epidermis,  which  in 
parts  is  well  preserved,  resembles  that  of  Curcuma  Zedoaria,  and  like 
the  latter  bears  thick-walled  unicellular  hairs.  The  yellow  lumps  (h), 
consisting  largely  of  starch-paste,  are  colored  blue  by  iodine.  On  addi- 
tion of  dilute  alkali  the  yellow  coloring  substance  (curcumin)  with  which 
they  are  impregnated  becomes  brown-red.  Concentrated  sulphuric  acic 
imparts  a  crimson  color.  In  addition  to  the  starch  lumps,  perfect  starch 


604 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


grains  are  often  present.  These  resemble  the  grains  of  ginger,  but  are 
usually  longer  (65  /*)  and*  narrower,  although  some  are  broader  than 
long.  The  parenchymatous  ground  tissue,  as  well  as  the  oil  cells,  is 
colored  deep  yellow.  Neither  the  vessels  (g)  nor  the  cork-cells  (K)  are 
characteristic. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Turmeric  has  a  characteristic  pungent  taste,  and  must  be  classed 
as  a  spice  as  well  as  a  coloring  substance.  Curry  powder  is  a  mixture 
of  turmeric,  pepper,  ginger,  coriander,  cardamoms,  cloves,  allspice,  cara- 


FIG.  516.  Turmeric.  Cross  section  of  rhizome. 
K  cork;  p  parenchyma  filled  with  starch  paste; 
h  oil  cell;  £  vessel.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  517.     Turmeric.     Cork  cells 
in      surface      view.  Xi6o. 

(MOELLER.) 


way,  and  fenugreek.  Aside  from  its  use  in  the  arts,  turmeric  is  exten- 
sively employed  for  coloring  mustard,  noodles,  and  other  food  products, 
often  with  the  purpose  of  deceiving  the  consumer. 

It  is  detected  by  the  yellow  starch  lumps,  which  become  red-brown 
with  alkali,  crimson  with  strong  sulphuric  acid,  and  blue  with  iodine. 
The  vessels  are  like  those  of  ginger;  bast  fibers,  however,  are  not  present. 
A  piece  of  filter-paper  impregnated  with  a  concentrated  alcoholic  extract 
of  the  material  and  dried  gives  on  moistening  with  a  dilute  solution  of 
boric  acid  (containing  in  each  10  cc.  about  six  drops  of  concentrated 
hydrochloric  acid)  and  drying,  a  cherry-red  color,  becoming  deep  blue 
with  ammonia. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Greenish  (14);  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (16,  17); 
Leach  (25);  Mace*  (26);  Meyer,  A.  (27);  Moeller  (29,  30,  31,  32);  Planchon  et 
Collin  (34);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (45). 


ZEDOARY. 


605 


ZEDOARY. 

The  zedoary  plant  (Curcuma  Zedoaria  Roscoe,  order  Zingiberacea), 
although  belonging  in  the  same  genus  as  turmeric,  has  much  larger  rhi- 
zomes, which  are  cut  into  transverse  or  longitudinal  slices  before  drying. 
The  rind  is  easily  removed  by  scraping.  Numerous  oil  cells  are  evident 
in  cross  section. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  structure  (Figs.  518  and  519)  resembles  that  of  ginger  and  tur- 
meric. Like  the  latter,  the  epidermis,  with  thick-walled  or  unicellular 


h 


FIG.  518.     Zedoary  (Curcuma  Zedoaria).    Epider-     FIG.    519.      Zedoary.      Parenchyma  of 
mis  and  starch  grains  of  rhizome.   (MOELLER.)  rhizome  showing  starch   grains  and  h 

resin  lump.    X 160.     (MoELLER.) 

hairs,  is  here  and  there  well  preserved.  The  cork  cells  are  large  and 
thin-walled.  Although  the  starch  grains  are  of  the  same  type  as  those 
of  turmeric,  they  are  distinguished  by  their  more  rounded  form  and  more 
uniform  size  (maximum  80  /*).  Many  of  the  grains  are  ovate,  with  scarcely 
any  evidence  of  a  point.  Bast  fibers  are  absent. 

I  DIAGNOSIS. 

Zedoary  is  now  seldom  used  either  as  a  spice  or  a  drug  outside  of  the 
countries  where  it  is  produced.     It  has  a  milder  taste    than   turmeric, 


606  SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 

with  a  suggestion  of  camphor.     The  powder  (Figs.  518  and  519)  resembles 
ginger  in  color,  but  bast  fibers  are  absent. 

GALANGAL. 

Common  or  small  galangal  is  the  rhizome  of  Alpinia  officinarum 
Hance'  (order  Zingiberacea),  a  plant  growing  on  the  island  of  Hainan 
and  the  neighboring  Chinese  coast.  Alpinia  calcarata  Roscoe,  a  closely 
related  species,  yields  a  rhizome  used  in  India.  Large  galangal,  obtained 
from  a  Javanese  species  (A  Galanga  Sw.),  is  seldom  exported. 

The  finger-like  rhizomes  of  the  common  sort  are  encircled  by  fringed 
leaf-scars,  and  bear  also  here  and  there  root-scars.  They  are  brown-red 
inside  and  out,  somewhat  hard,  and  have  an  uneven  fracture.  The 
thickness  of  the  rind  exceeds  the  diameter  of  the  central  cylinder.  Cross 
sections  are  dotted  with  dark  oil  cells  and  light  bundles. 

HISTOLOGY. 

1.  The  Epidermis  (Fig.   520,  ep)   consists  of  small  polygonal  cells 
and  stomata.     T.  F.  Hanausek  notes  that  several  cell-layers  are  often 
present.     Cork  tissue  is  absent. 

2.  Cortex.    In  the  outer  layers  the  parenchyma  cells  are  small,  with 
thin  dark-red  walls,  and  contain  a  brown  substance  in  granules  and 


FIG.  520.     Galangal  (Alpinia  officinarum).     Outer  layers  of  rhizome  in  surface  view,    ep 
epidermis;   rp  brown  parenchyma;   g  tannin  grains;    h  oil  cell.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

lumps,  but  no  starch.     Further  inward  the  cells  have  thick  porous  walls, 
and  contain  starch  grains. 

3.  Endodermis  (Fig.  521,  end).     The  cells  have  suberized  walls,  and 


GALANGAL 


607 


FIG.  521.     Galangal.     Cross  section  of  rhizome,     pa  parenchyma,  oe  oil  cells,  and  end  endo- 
dermis  of  the  cortex;    ba  bast  fibers  and  ge  vessels  of  a  bundle.     (GiLG.) 


F!0.  522.     Galangal.     Longitudinal    section    of    rhizome      t 
b/  bast  fibefs;    £  vessel;    am  starch.     Xi6o. 


6o8 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


are  further  distinguished  from  the  adjoining  layers  by  the  absence  of 
starch. 

4.  Central  Cylinder.  The  thick-walled,  porous  parenchyma  is  usu- 
ally rich  in  starch  (Fig.  522,  am),  but  the  grains  differ  markedly  from 
those  of  turmeric.  As  a  rule  they  are  simple,  club-shaped,  with  the  hilum 
in  the  larger  end.  Curious  hammer-shaped  and  other  irregular  forms 
are  also  present.  They  are  mostly  20-35  /JL  long,  but  sometimes  exceed 
80  p..  Some  rhizomes  contain  no  starch.  Distributed  among  the  paren- 
chyma cells  are  typical  oil  cells  with  brown  contents.  The  bundles 

are  always  accompanied  and  often  surrounded 
by  broad  bast  fibers  with  walls  of  medium 
thickness  (double  12  //).  The  vessels  are 
broad  (45  //)  and  have  noticeably  thicker 
walls  than  the  parenchyma. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  irregular  starch  grains  (Fig.  522,  am] 
with  hilum  in  the  broad  end,  the  parenchyma 
(p)  with  thick  porous  walls,  and  the  bast 
fibers  (bj)  are  the  noteworthy  elements. 


tW, 


SWEET    FLAG. 


The  sweet  flag,  or  calamus  root,  is  the  dried 
rhizome  of  Acorus  Calamus  L.  (order  Aracece), 

FIG.  523.    Sweet  Flag  (Acorus  a  Plant  growing  in  shallow  water  and  swamps. 

Calamus).    A  upper  side  of  The  scars  of  the  roots  form  zigzag  markings 

SSSo'SUs  of  on  the  under  surface   (Fig.  523)-     The  unde- 

flower  stalks.     B  lower  side  corticated   rhizome    is    dark    red-brown,   the 

showing  root  scars.     Natural 

size.    (VocL.)  decorticated  cream-colored. 

HISTOLOGY. 

1.  Epidermis  (Fig.  524,  ep).     The  brown  skin  consists  of  polygonal 
epidermal  cells  with  cork  cells  on  the  root  scars. 

2.  The  Hypoderm  cells    are    collenchymatous,   arranged    in  several 

layers. 

3.  Cortex   (Fig.    525).     The   collenchyma  passes   by  degrees   into  a 
highly  characteristic  loose    parenchyma,   consisting  of  chains   of  small 
rounded  polygonal  starch  cells  (s)  and  oil' cells  (o)  forming  a  network, 
with  large  intercellular  spaces  (i)  in  the  meshes. 


SWEET  FLAG. 


609 


The  starch  grains  are  rounded,  3-6  /JL  in  diameter,  and  usually  occur 
singly,  seldom  in  aggregates  of  2-4.     Accompanying  them  in  the  cell 


FIG.  524.     Sweet   Flag.     Elements  of  rhizome,     ep  epidermis;    o  oil  cell.     (MOELLER.) 

are  proteid  matter  and  lumps  with  the  reactions  of  tannin.  According 
to  Hartwich  the  contents  of  many  cells  is  a  substance  colored  red  by 
aniline  and  hydrochloric  acid. 


FIG.  525.     Sweet  Flag.     Cross  section  of  rhizome.     5  starch  parenchyma  forming  network 
about  *  intercellular  spaces;    o  oil  cells;    gfb  fibro-vascular  bundle;    k  endodermis. 

(TSCHIRCH.) 

The  oil  cells  are  usually  larger  than  the  starch  cells  (30-90  /*),  and 
occur  mostly  at  the  knots  of  the  network.  Each  contains  a  drop  of  yel- 
low oil  or  a  lump  of  resin,  which  often  falls  out  from  sections.  In  the 


6 io  SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 

outer  part  of  the  cortex  the  bundles  consist  solely  of  bast  fibers  accom 
panied  sometimes  by  crystal  fibers ;  further  inward  they  are  true  fibre 
vascular  bundles  of  the  collateral  type  with  a  sheath  of  bast  fibers. 

4.  Endodermis.    The  cells  are  suberized,  and  contain  starch. 

5.  Central   Cylinder.     The   ground  tissue    is   a  network  of  starch 
and  oil  cells  like  that  of  the  cortex.     The  bundles  are  concentric,  with 
the  xylem  elements  forming  a  ring  about  the  phloem. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  powder  contains  a  large  amount  of  small  rounded  starch  grains 
(Fig.  524).  Chains  of  starch  cells  and  oil  cells  (Fig.  525)  from  the 
spongy  parenchyma  are  found  intact  even  in  the  finest  powder.  The 
walls  separating  the  starch  cells  are  knotty-thickened,  but  those  adjoining 
the  intercellular  spaces  are  thin,  non-porous.  Vessels  occur  in  consid- 
erable numbers. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  pp.  671-674:  Moeller  (30,  32);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);   Tschirch  u.  Oesw 
(40);  Vogl  (44). 

LEAVES. 

Of  the  leaves  used  as  spices,  those  of  labiates,  including  sage,  mar- 
joram, savory,  thyme,  and  hyssop,  are  the  most  important.  They  are 
characterized  by  the  presence  of  jointed  hairs,  multicellular  glands  and. 
glandular  hairs.  Bay -leaf  has  thick-walled,  porous,  sinuous,  epidermal 
cells.  Other  leaves  of  lesser  importance  are  wormwood,  tarragon,  and 
sorrel. 

The  general  structure  of  leaves  is  discussed  on  p.  28. 

SAGE. 

Sage  (Salma  offidnalis  L.,  order  Labiate)  grows  wild  in  Mediterranean 
countries  and  is  cultivated  in  many  regions  for  use  as  a  drug  and  pot  herb. 

The  leaves  (Fig.  526)  are  petioled,  frequently  lobed  at  the  base, 
ovate  to  lanceolate,  blunt  or  pointed,  finely  scolloped,  on  the  surface  finely 
reticulated.  When  young  they  are  covered  with  a  white  or  gray  felt  of 
hairs,  later  they  become  almost  smooth. 


SAGE. 


6n 


HISTOLOGY. 

The  Epidermis  (Fig.  527)  is  much  the  same  on  both  sides,  con- 
sisting of  polygonal,  wavy,  or  sinuous  cells,  hairs  and  stomata,  the  latter 
being  most  numerous  on  the  lower  side.  In  addition  to  the  disk-shaped 

glands  characteristic  of  labiates  are  present 
glands  with  unicellular  or  multicellular  stems 
and  globular  heads  divided  below  by  a 
vertical  partition.  Characteristic  are  the 
whip-like  hairs,  which  are  often  so  abun- 
dant as  to  form  a  felt.  They  are  very 
long,  narrow,  thick-walled,  one  or  more 
celled,  with  peculiarly  thickened  partition 
walls. 

Mesophyl  crystals  are  absent. 


•  Leaf' 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Moeller  (30,  31,  3«)J  Planchon  et  Coffin 

(34);  Vogl(44). 

MEYER,  AD.  :  Off.  Blatter  u.  Krauter.    Halle,  1882. 


612 


SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


MARJORAM. 

Marjoram  (Origanum  Majorana  L.,  order  LabiatcB),  a  native  of  northern 
Africa  and  middle  Asia,  is  a  common  pot  herb  in  Europe.  The  dried 
product  consists  of  the  leaves,  flowers,  and  branches. 

The  leaves  (Fig.  528)  are  petioled,  ovate-spatulate,  blunt,  entire, 
soft-downy  on  both  sides,  with  veins  forming  indis- 
tinct  loops. 

HISTOLOGY. 

PIG.  528.    Marjoram         Epidermis.     On    both   sides    the    cells    have   un- 

rana)"  Leaf ,  natural  equally  knotty-thickened  walls,  which  on  the  upper 

size.    (MOBILE?.)    gjde  (pig.  ^2p)  are  slightly  wavy,  on  the  under  side 

(Fig.   530),  deeply   sinuous.      Small  stomata,  with  two  adjacent  cells, 

occur  in  large  numbers  on  the  under  surface,  sparingly  on  the  upper. 


FlG.  529.     Marjoram.     Upper  epidermis  of  leaf  in  surface  view.     (MOELLER.) 

Three  forms  of  hairs  are   found  on  both  sides:    (i)  long,  broad,  multi- 
cellular,  thin-walled,  often  finely  warty  hairs,  mostly  curved  at  the  apex; 


MARJORAM.    SAVORY. 

(2)  glandular  hairs  with  2-4  celled  stalks  and  1-2  celled  heads;  (3)  disk- 
shaped  glands  with  cells  arranged  in  a  rosette,  about  which  the  epidermal 
cells  also  form  a  rosette. 

Mesophyl  crystals  are  absent. 


FIG.  530.     Marjoram.     Lower  epidermis  of  leaf  in  surface  view.     (MOELLER.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Vogl  (44). 
MEYER,  AD.:  Off.  Blatter  u.  Krauter.     Halle,  1882. 
MITLACHER:    Pharm.  Post.  1902. 

SAVORY. 

Savory  or  summer  savory  (Satureja  hortensis  L.,  order  Labiates) 
is  a  native  of  southern  Europe,  and  is  cultivated  over  a  wide  area.  The 
leaves,  flowers,  and  branches  are  used  dried  as  a  pot  herb. 

The  leaves  (Fig.  531)  arc  linear  lanceolate,  tapering  into  a  short 
petiole,  pointed,  entire,  with  glands  on  the  edges  and  on  both  sides.  Only 
the  midrib  is  prominent. 


614 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


HISTOLOGY. 

The  Epidermis  (Fig.   532)  is  much  the  same  on  both  sides.     The 
cell-walls  are    irregularly   sinuous,    distinctly    porous 
||  The  numerous  stomata  have  an  adjacent  cell  at  each 

pole.  Hairs  occur  sparingly  and  are  of  three  forms 
(i)  jointed  hairs,  gradually  tapering  from  the  broac 
base  to  the  apex,  with  smooth  or  warty,  somewhat 
thick  walls,  some  very  long  (visible  to  the  nakec 

^  \Satlllja  hortJnsisJ.   e7e)>   of  four  or   more   joints,   others   short,   conical 
Leaf,  natural   size.   2-3   celled;   (2)  typical  disk-shaped  glands  occurring 

(MOELLER.) 

in  great  numbers  in  depressions;    (3)  glandular  hairs 
with  short  stalks  and  globular  1-2  celled  heads. 


Fie.  532.     Savory.     Epidermis  of  leaf  in  surface  view.     (MOELLER.) 

Mesophyl  crystals  are  absent. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:    Planchon  et  Collin  (34);    Vogl  (44). 


THYME.     HYSSOP.  615 

THYME. 

This  herb  (Thymus  vulgaris  L.,  order  Labiata)  is  used  both  for  culi- 
nary and  medicinal  purposes.      It  is  a  native  of 
Europe,   where  it  is   also  cultivated.      The  leaves 
are  strongly  revolute,   10  mm.  or  less  long.     Short 
hairs  and  brown  glands  are  visible  under  a  lens. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Stomata  occur  on  both  epidermal  layers.     The 

very  numerous  hairs   are  mostly  1-2  celled,  short 

(under  75  //),  conical,  distinctly  warty.  Hairs  with 
globular  heads  are  also  present. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Vogl  (45). 


FIG.  533.  Hyssop  (Hys- 
sopTts  officinalis). 
Leaf,  natural  size. 

(MOELLER.) 


HYSSOP. 

This  herb  (Hyssopus  officinalis  L.,  order  Labiate?) ,  a  semi-shrubby 


FIG.  534.     Hyssop.     Upper  epidermis  of  leaf  in  surface  view.     (MOELLER.) 

plant  with  small  leaves,  is  a  native  of  southern  Europe  and  a  common 
garden  plant  in  other  parts  of  the  Old  World. 


6i6 


SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


The  leaves  (Fig.  533)  are  sessile,  lanceolate,  entire,  finely  reticulated 
when  dry  rolled  up  and  wrinkled  on  the  edges.  The  side  veins  are  not 
prominent. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Epidermis.  Stomata,  disk-shaped  glands,  and  short  unicellular  warty 
hairs  are  found  on  both  surfaces.  The  cell-walls  on  the  upper  side  are 


FIG.  535.     Hyssop.     Lower  epidermis  of  leaf  in  surface  view.     (MOELLER.) 

slightly  wavy  (Fig.  534),  those  of   the  under  side  sharply  sinuous  (Fig. 
535).     Two  adjacent  cells,   one  at  each  pole,,  surround  each  stoma. 
Mesophyl  crystals  are  absent. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Vogl  (44). 


BAY-LEAF. 

Numerous  varieties  of  the  laurel  (Laurus  nobilis  L.,  order  Lauracea) 
are  cultivated  in  Mediterranean  countries.  The  leaves  and  fruit  serve 
as  spices;  the  fruit  also  yields  a  medicinal  aromatic  fat. 

The  leaves  (Fig.  536)  are  short-petioled,  lanceolate,  at  the  margin 
faintly  undulate,  leathery,  smooth,  lustrous  above,  dull  and  of  a  lighter 


BAY-LEAF.     TARRAGON. 


617 


color  beneath.     From  the  prominent  midrib  branch  off  6  to  8  veins,  form- 
ing loops  near  the  margin. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  Epidermis  (Fig.  538)  on  both  sides 
bears  a  thick  cuticle.  The  cells  have  thick, 
sinuous,  porous  walls.  Stomata  are  numerous 
on  the  lower  epidermis,  but  do  not  occur  on 
the  upper.  They  are  mostly  sunken  below 
the  surface,  and  are  surrounded  by  4  to  5 
cells. 

Mesophyl.  In  cross  section  (Fig.  537)  the 
oil  cells  of  the  mesophyl  are  conspicuous. 
These  are  globular  (30-40  //),  and  often  con- 
tain a  drop  of  essential  oil.  Characteristic 
also  are  the  collenchyma  cells  accompanying 
the  bundles,  which,  like  columns,  hold  the  two 
epidermal  layers  apart. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General    Bibliography,    pp.  671-674:     Moeller    FI(J>   ^    Bay_leaf  (Laurus 
(3i>  32);    Planchon  et  Collin   (34);    Vogl  (44,  45).  nob  His}.    Natural  size. 

(MOELLER.) 


TARRAGON. 

This  herb  (Artemisia  Dracunculus  L.,  order  Composite),  a  native  of 
Asia,  is  much  grown  in  England  and  on  the  Continent.  It  is  used  fresh 
as  a  pot  herb  and  for  making  tarragon  vinegar. 


'  ;.    .       FIG.  537.     Bay-leaf.     Cross  section,  slightly  magnified.     (MOELLER.) 

The  leaves  (Fig.  539)  are  mostly  linear  lanceolate,  entire,  not  petioled, 
thick,  smooth,  with  indistinct  venation. 


6i8 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 
HISTOLOGY. 


Epidermis  (Fig.  540).     Both  surfaces  have  the  same  structure.     The 
young  leaves  bear  short-stalked  multicellular  glands ;    the  mature  leaves 


FiG.  538.     Bay-leaf.     Lower  epidermis  in  surface  view.     (MoELLER.J 


FIG.  539.   Tarragon  (Artemisia      FIG.  540.     Tarragon.     Epidermis  of  leaf  in  surface  view. 
Dracunculus).    Leaf,  natural  (MOELLER.) 

size.     (MOELLER.) 

are  smooth.     The  cells  are  isodiametric  with  sinuous  walls,  or  elongated 
with  straight  walls.     Three  or  more  adjacent  cells  surround  each  stoma. 


TARRAGON.     WORMWOOD. 


619 


Mesophyl  crystals  are  absent. 

Other  species  of  Artemisia  are  downy-hairy.     Each  hair  is  T-shaped, 
bearing  on  a  short,  jointed  stalk  a  long  transversely  arranged  end  cell. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:   Koch  (22);   Moeller  (30,  31);   Planchon 
et  Collin  (34);  Tschirch  (39);  Vogl  (44). 
MEYER,  AD.:   Off.  Blatter  u.  Krauter.     Halle,  1882. 


WORMWOOD. 

The  European  wormwood  (Artemisia  vulgaris  L.,  order  Composite) 
has  pinnately-cleft  leaves  with  irregular,  deeply  lobed,  dentate  divisions 
(Fig.  541).  They  are  dark  green  above,  white  or  gray,  woolly-hairy 


FIG.  541.    Wormwood  (Artemisia  vulgaris).    Leaf,  natural  size.     (MOELLER.) 


beneath.     In  the  region  of  the  flowers  the  leaves  are  entire.     The  divi- 
sions are  lanceolate,  prickle-pointed,  sparingly  veined. 


620  SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 

HISTOLOGY. 
The  Epidermis  (Fig.  542)  on  both  sides  consists  of  cells  with  wavy 


FIG.  542.     Wormwood.     Epidermis  of  leaf  with  hairs.     (MOELLER.) 


FIG.  543.     Sorrel    (Rumex   scutalus).     Leaf,    natural   size.     (MOELLER.) 

walls,  stomata  (most  abundant  beneath),  and  remarkable  T-shaped  hairs 


WORMWOOD.     SORREL. 


621 


made  up  of  a  3-4  celled  stalk  and  a  long  (up  to  400  jj)  transversely 
arranged,  thin-walled,  often  collapsed  end  cell.  Glands  with  several 
tiers  of  cells  occur  sparingly. 


See  Tarragon,  p.  619. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


SORREL. 


French  sorrel  (Rumex  scutatus  L.,  order  PolygonacecB)  is  a  native  of 
central  and  southern  Europe,  where  it  is  also  cultivated. 

The  palmately-veined  leaves  (Fig.  543) 
are  long-petioled,  rounded-cordate  or  rounded- 
hastate,  with  a  broad  upper  lobe  and  two 
smaller  lobes  at  the  base.  They  are  rather 
thick,  smooth,  hoary  sea-green,  reddish  below. 

Epidermis  (Fig.   544).    The  cells  on  both 


FIG.  544      Sorrel.     Epidermis  of  leaf  in  surface  view.  FIG.  545.     Sorrel  (Rumex  A cetosa}. 

(MOELLER.)  Leaf,  natural  size.     (MOELLER.) 

surfaces  are  large,  with  thin,  wavy  walls.  Usually  three  cells  adjoin 
each  stoma. 

The  Mesophyl  contains  oxalate  rosettes. 


622 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


The   leaves   of   Rumex   acetosa  L.  are  long-petioled,  saggitate,  dark 
green,  smooth,  or  (beneath)  hairy  (Fig.  545). 

The  Epidermis  (Fig.  546)  is  much  like  that  of  the  preceding  species, 


FIG.  546.     Sorrel.     Epidermis  of  leaf  in  surface  view.     (MOELLER.) 

but  it  bears  4-celled  glands  with  short  stalks,  also,  along  the  veins,  peculiar 
papillae  with  striated  cuticle. 

Herb  Patience  (Rumex  patientia  L.),  a  European  pot  herb,  has  large, 
petioled,  oblong  or  ovate-lanceolate,  smooth  leaves,  with  rounded  or  cor- 
date base  and  wavy  margin. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Villiers  et  Collin 
(42). 


.     FLOWERS. 

The  most  important  products  of  this  class  are  flower  buds  (cloves, 
capers,  cassia  buds)  and  stigmas  (saffron).  Several  flowers  are  used  as 
adulterants  of  saffron.  Cassia  buds  are  described  for  convenience  after 
cassia  bark  on  p.  591. 

The  general  structure  of  flowers  is  discussed' on  p.  30. 


SAFFRON. 


623 


SAFFRON. 

Genuine  saffron  is  the  dried  stigmas  of  a  small  bulbous  plant  (Crocus 
salivus  L.,  order  Iridacea)  indigenous  to  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.1  In 
early  times  the  plant  was  introduced  into  Italy,  from  whence  it  was  dis- 
tributed over  central  and  western  Europe  as  far  as  England.  At  present 
it  is  grown  chiefly  in  Spain,  France,  Egypt,  Persia,  and  India.  Its  cul- 
ture, although  profitable,  requires  a  large  outlay  of  labor  in  gathering 
the  flowers,  which  appear  during  October,  and  are  picked  from  day 
to  day  by  hand.  The  flower  consists  of  a  light-colored  tube  about  10  cm. 
long  and  2-3  cm.  broad,  which  expands  at  the  top  and  divides  into 
six  beautiful  violet  lobes,  corresponding  to  petals  and  sepals.  A  mem- 
branous spathe  surrounds  the  tube.  The  slender  yellow  style  (Fig.  547) 


FIG.  547.     Saffron  (Crocus  sativus).     Style 
and  stigmas.     (PLANCHON.) 


FIG.  548.    Spring  Crocus  (Crocus  vernus). 
Style  and  stigmas.     (PLANCHON.) 


divides  in  the  crown  of  the  flower  into  three  fleshy,  lustrous,  revolute, 

trumpet-shaped,  bright  orange-red  stigmas,  2-3  cm.  long,  with  s 

edges. . 

'  This  species  should  not  be  confounded  with  Crocus  -vernus  L.,  numerous  varieties  of 
which  are  cultivated  for  their  spring  flowers.     The  stigmas  (Fig.  548)  of  this  species 
neither  odor  nor  taste  and  but  little  tinctorial  power. 


624  SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 

In  the  preparation  of  commercial  saffron  the  stigmas  are  separated 
as  completely  as  possible  from  the  styles,  and  dried  in  sieves  over  fires. 
The  product  is  characterized  by  its  intense  orange-red  color,  penetrating 
odor,  and  peculiar  taste. 

HISTOLOGY. 

After  soaking  in  water,  which  extracts  the  larger  part  of  the  coloring 
matter,  the  form  and  structure  of  the  stigmas  may  be  studied.  The  walls 
of  the  stigma,  although  very  soft  and  scarcely  more  than  0.4  mm.  thick, 
may  be  held  between  pieces  of  pith  and  sectioned  with  a  razor. 

The  structure  is  very  simple   (Fig.   549).     The  ground  tissue  con- 


P— 

FIG.  549.     S  ffron.     Cross  section  of  stigma  at  margin,     ep  epidermis;    g  fibro- vascular 
bundle;    c  separated  cuticle;    P  pollen  grain.     (MOELLER.) 

sists  of  delicate,  loosely  arranged  parenchyma  with  a  few  small  bundles, 
between  two  epidermal  layers.  Seen  in  surface  view  all  the  cells  are 
elongated  up  to  200  jj.  long  and  15  /£  broad. 

Outer  Epidermis  (Fig.  550,  ep]  Fig.  551).  The  cuticle  is  glassy,  stri- 
ated, much  stiff er  than  the  cell- walls.  The  cells  are  more  or  less  elongated, 
and  each  usually  bears  a  short  papilla  (p).  These  papillae  on  the  edges 
of  the  stigma.,  where  they  are  especially  numerous,  are  both  short  and 
long  (up  to  400  /*),  20-40  JJL  broad.  On  the  surface  both  cells  and  papillas 
are  finely  granular. 

The  coloring  matter,  which  is  found  in  all  the  cells,  is  fiery  red,  or 
in  thin  sections,  yellow.  It  is  insoluble  in  oil,  but  dissolves  in  water  and 
alkalies  to  a  yellow  solution,  leaving  undissolved  only  a  colorless  crumbling 
substance  and  an  occasional  oil  drop.  In  glycerine  and  alcohol  it  dis- 
solves more  slowly.  The  cell-contents  form  with  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid  a  blue  solution,  changing  through  violet  and  red  into  brown.  After 


SAFFRON. 


625 


this  treatment  fine  needles,  insoluble  in  water,  separate.  Rudolf  Muller 
notes  that  oxalate  crystals  are  absent,  but  here  and  there  crystals  insoluble 
in  hydrochloric  acid  are  present. 

Pollen  Grains  (Fig.  549,  P)  are  often  found  on  the  stigmas.  They  are 
globular,  120  /*  in  diameter,  and  have  a  thick  membrane  and  colorless 
granular  contents. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Saffron  is  not  in  such  demand  as  formerly,  either  as  a  spice,  a  drug, 
or  a  dyestuff.  Although  its  color  is  intense,  one  part  imparting  a  dis- 
tinct yellow  to  200,000  parts  of  water,  the  coal-tar  colors  have  largely 
replaced  it  as  a  dye. 

Whole  Saffron,  the  form  in  which  the  product  is  usually  placed  on 
the  market,  is  readily  identified  by  the  macroscopic  characters  and  the 


FIG.  550.     Saffron.     Surface  view  of  stigma,     ep  epidermis;  g  spiral  vessel;  p  papillae. 

.      (MOELLER.) 


reactions  of  the  coloring  matter,  especially  its  solubility  in  water,  and 
the  blue  color  imparted  by  sulphuric  acid. 

The  chief  microscopic  characters  are  the  elongated  parenchyma  cells 
of  the  epidermis  and  ground  tissue,  the  former  with  papillae  (Figs. 
550  and  551),  and  the  smooth  globular  pollen  grains  (Fig.  549,  P). 

Powdered  Saffron  is  seldom  found  on  the  market.  The  reactions  of 
the  coloring  matter  and  the  histological  characters  as  given  above  serve 
in  identification. 


626 


SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


Adulterants.     Owing  to  its  high  cost  saffron  is  often  grossly  adulterate 
The  adulterations  are  chiefly  of  five  classes : 

(i)  Saffron  Styles,  being  yellow,  are  strikingly  different  from  the 
orange-red  stigmas.  If,  however,  the  product  is  artificially  colored, 
it  must  be  soaked  in  water,  after  which  the  cylindrical  styles  may  be 
readily  distinguished  from  the  trumpet-shaped  stigmas.  In  powder  form 
it  is  difficult  to  detect  this  form  of  adulteration,  owing  to  the  similarity 
in  structure  of  the  two  parts.  Papillae  such  as  are  present  on  the  edges 
of  the  stigma  are  not  found  on  the  style,  but  failure  to  find  them  is  no 


FIG.  551.     Saffron.     Epidermis  of  stigma  with  papilla-.     (MoELLER.) 

proof  of  adulteration,  since  they  form  but  a  small  portion  of  the  tissues 
and  are  not  readily  found  in  the  debris.  Of  greater  value  in  diagnosi. 
are  the  epidermal  cells,  which  in  the  style  are  wavy,  and  lack  papilla 
(Vogl).  If  in  oil  mounts  one  finds  a  considerable  amount  of  homoge- 
neous yellow  parenchyma,  either  styles  or  extracted  stigmas  are  probably 
present. 

(2)  Parts  of  Foreign  Plants.  The  most  common  adulterants  of  this 
class  are  marigold  flowers  (p.  627),  safflower  (p.  629),  maize  silk  (p.  632), 
red  sandalwood  (p.  44),  and  paprika  (p.  516).  Others  occasionally 
used  are :  Flowers  of  Scolymus  hispanicus,  flowers  of  pomegranate  (Punica 
granatum  L.)i  stigmas  and  stamens  of  other  species  of  Crocus,  chopped 


SAFFRON.     MARIGOLD  FLOWERS.  627 

grass  leaves  colored  with  cochineal  and  weighted  with  lime,1  leaves  colored 
with  carmine  and  weighted  with  heavy  spar,2  rootlets  of  chives  (Allium 
Schcenoprasum  L.),3  petals  of  peony  (P&onia),4  petals  of  poppy  (Papaver 
Rhoeas'L.),  garlic  rootlets,  onion  scales,  malt  sprouts,  the  etiolated  sprouts 
of  vetches,  an  alga,5  etc. 

(3)  Artificially  Colored  Safjron.     The  exhausted  product  is  sometimes 
colored  with  coal-tar  dyes.     These  do  not  penetrate  into  the  cells,  but 
are  deposited  on  the  surface.     The  material  should  be  examined  in  water 
and  in  oil,  and  the  extracted  dye  subjected  to  chemical  tests. 

(4)  Weighted  Saffron  is  prepared  by  soaking  in  oil,  glycerine,  sirup, 
or  gelatine,  and  stirring  with  mineral  substances.     Saffron  is  also  said 
to  be  soaked  in  a  solution  of  a  barium  salt  and  afterwards  in  a  solution 
of  a  sulphate,  thus  depositing  barium  sulphate  in  the  cells.    These  adul- 
terants are  detected  by  determinations  of  ash  and  analyses  of  the  ash. 

(5)  Coal-tar  Dyes  with  no  vegetable  matter  whatever    are    substi- 
tuted for  genuine  saffron. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (10,  16);  Linsbauer 
(48);  Mace  (26);  Meyer  (27);  Moeller  (29,30,31,32);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34); 
Schimper  (37);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle  (40);  Vogl  (43,  45)- 

CHICOTE:  Une  novelle  falsification  du  safran.     Jour,  pharm.  chim.  1896,  3,  116. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:   Safranfalschung.     Rev.  internal,  scient.  et  popul.  1887,  1,  24. 
HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:    Ueber  eine   neue    Safranfalschung.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg. 

1888,  2,   19. 
KAISER:    Ueber     Safranfalschung.     Fiinfte    Versammlung    der    freien  Vereinigung, 

bayer.  Vertr.  der  angew.  Chemie. 

KIRKBY:   Saffron  adulteration.     Pharm.  Jour.  Transact.  337. 
MULLER,  R.:    Ueber  die   vermeintlichen  Oxalatkristalle  im  Safran.     Ztschr.  allgem. 

osterr.  Apoth.-Ver.   1903. 
NESTLER:    Eigentiimliche  Kristalle  auf  den  Safrannarben.       Ztschr.  Unters.  Nahr.- 

Genussm.  1903,  6,  1034. 
RANVEZ:  Falschung  von  Safran.     Ann.  Pharm.  1895. 

flARIGOLD   FLOWERS. 

The  tasteless  and  odorless  ray-flowers  of  the  marigold  (Calendula 
officinalis  L.,  order  Composites),  often  artificially  colored,  serve  as  an 
adulterant  of  saffron.  The  ovary  is  small,  spindle-shaped;  the  strap- 
shaped  corolla,  orange-colored,  4-veined,  3-toothed,  upward  of  25  mm. 
long,  contracted  into  a  channeled  hairy  base. 


W.  Brandes. 


~2  A.  Meyer.  3  Gehe.  "Jandous.  5  Kanoldt. 


628 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


HISTOLOGY. 

Corolla.    The  thin  blades  may  be  mounted  directly  in  water. 

Epidermis  (Fig.  552).     The  cells  are  elongated,  finely  striate,  arrangec 

end  to  end  in  rows.     Each  contains  one  or  more  drops  of  fatty  oil,  in 


JL.. 


? 

FIG.  552.     Marigold  (Calendula  officinalis).     Surface  view  of  petal  showing  ep  epidermis 
with  h  hairs  and  p  parenchyma  with  oil  globules.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 


which  is  dissolved  a  yellow  dye.  The  numerous  hairs  (h)  on  the  channeled 
base  are  over  i  mm.  long,  and  usually  consist  of  two  parallel  rows  of  cells, 
the  end  cells  being  often  deep  yellow  and  shrunken. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Although  the  dried  product  somewhat  resembles  saffron,  on  soaking 
in  water  the  difference  in  microscopic  structure  is  striking.  The  strap- 
shaped,  4-veined,  3-toothed  corolla  narrowed  into  a  channeled  hairy 
base  is  characteristic.  In  the  ground  product  the  long  hairs  (Fig.  552,  h), 
made  up  usually  of  two  rows  of  cells,  are  readily  identified.  Water 
extracts  only  a  trace  of  color  from  the  uncolored  flowers. 


SAFFLOWER. 


629 


SAFFLOWER. 

The  orange-red  flowers  of  Carthamus  tinctorius  L.  (order  Composite), 
known  ^  as  safflower,  are  obtained  from  India  and  the  Levant.  Before 
marketing  they  are  usually  washed  to  remove  the  yellow  coloring  matter, 
pressed  in  the  hands,  and  finally  dried.  The  commercial  product  has 
little  odor  or  taste. 

The  red  corolla  consists  of  a  slender  tube  over  2  cm.  long,  ending  in 
five  lanceolate  lobes  (Fig.  553).  The  yellow  anthers  are  united  into  a 
tube  5  mm.  long,  projecting  beyond  the  corolla,  and  out  of  this  in  turn 


FIG.  553.      Safflower    (Carthamus    tincto-  FIG.  554.     Safflower.     Cross  section  through 

rius).     P  corolla;    A   anthers;    AT"  stig-  the    margin    of    petal.      G    fibro-vascular 

ma;    fk    ovary.     Enlarged.     (TscniRCH  bundle;    s    resin   tube.     (TSCHIRCH    and 

and  OESTERLE.)  OESTERLE.) 

projects  the  club-shaped  red  stigma.  The  corolla  tube  is  united  below 
with  the  pistil.  Narrow,  white,  silky  bractlets  of  the  receptacle  are  often 
present  with  the  flowers. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The  Corolla  (Figs.  554  and  555)  is  much  thinner  than  the  stigmas  of 
saffron,  and  of  a  deeper  color. 

Epidermis  (ep).  The  cells  are  elongated,  more  or  less  wavy  in  con- 
tour. Papilla?  (p)  similar  to  those  of  saffron  are  limited  to  the  ends  of 
the  lobes. 

The  Middle  Layers  consist  of  elongated  cells,  uncommonly  narrow 
spiral  vessels,  and,  accompanying  the  latter,  tubes  containing  a  dark- 


630 


SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


brown  resin-like  material,  often  in  detached  cylindrical  masses  (s).  In 
the  smaller  tubes  the  interstices  between  these  masses  might  be  mis- 
taken for  crystals. 

The  Stamens  (Fig.   556)   are  still  more  characteristic  in  structure. 
They  consist  of  fibrous  cells,  many  of  which  are  beautifully  reticulated 


FIG.  555.     Safflower.     Tissues  of  petal  FIG.  556.      Safflower.      Tissues   of   stamen   in 

in  surface   view,     ep  epidermis  with  surface  view.     /  reticulated  and  porous  fibers. 

p  papilla?;   sp  spiral  vessels;   s  resin  Xsoo.     (MOELLER.) 
tubes.     X  300.     (MOELLER.) 

or  else  pierced  with  numerous,  uncommonly  broad  pores.  At  the  place 
where  the  filaments  join  the  anthers  the  cells  are  isodiametric.  Short 
papillae  occur  on  the  ends  of  the  anthers. 

Stigmas  (Fig.  557).  The  numerous  thin- walled  papillae  are  very 
striking.  The  Pollen  Grains  (p)  which  are  often  found  on  the  stigma 
are  triangular,  roughened,  40-60  /*,  with  three  excrescences. 

The  Bracts  (Fig.  558)  are  made  up  of  long  (up  to  500  /*),  narrow 
(20  ft),  parenchymatous  cells  with  reticulated  end  walls. 

The  coloring  matter  exists  in  the  cells  as  a  red,  homogeneous  or 
indistinctly  granular  mass,  insoluble  in  both  water  and  oil.  Alkalies 
turn  it  yellow. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Safflower  is  used  in  medicine,  and  occasionally  as  an  adulterant  of 
saffron.  Microscopic  examination  of  the  soaked  material  suffices  for  the* 


SAFFLOWER.     CAPE  SAFFRON. 


631 


identification  of  the  whole  flowers.    The  characters  of  chief  value  in 
the  examination  of  the  powder  are  the  wavy-walled  epidermal  cells  (Fig. 


FIG.  557.     Safflower.     Stigma  and  p  pol- 
len grains.     X  300.     (MOELLER.) 


qu- 


FiG.  558.     Safflower.     Bract    in   surface 
view.     X  300.     (MOELLER.) 


555,  ep)  and  the  resin  tubes  (s)  of  the  red  corolla,  the  elongated  reticu- 
lated cells  of  the  filaments  and  bracts  (Fig.  558),  the  papillae  of  the  stigmas 
(Fig.  557),  and  the  roughened  triangular  pollen  grains  (Fig.  557,  p)  each 
with  three  excrescences.  The  product  imparts  little  color  to  water. 


CAPE   SAFFRON. 

The  flowers  of  Lyperia  crocea  Eckl.  (order  Scrophulariacea),  known 
in  commerce  as  Cape  saffron,  resemble  true  saffron  in  odor,  taste,  and 
dyeing  properites,  although  the  two  plants  belong  to  widely  different 
families.  The  calyx  is  greenish,  somewhat  inflated,  with  five  linear 
lobes;  the  corolla  is  superior,  fugaceous,  25  mm.  long,  with  a  long  tube, 
and  five  spreading,  rounded,  somewhat  revolute  lobes.  Two  short  and 
two  long  stamens  are  inserted  on  the  corolla  tube.  Distributed  over 
the  corolla  and  calyx  are  large,  regularly  formed  glandular  scales,  con- 
sisting of  four  cells  with  a  blister-like  enlargement  of  the  cuticle.  The 
contents  are  a  colorless  substance  soluble  in  alcohol  and  alkali.  The 
color  of  the  dried  flowers  is  dark  brown,  becoming  lighter  on  soaking 
in  water  (Vogl). 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


SOUTH    AFRICAN   SAFFRON. 

The  flowers  of  Tritonia  aurea  Pappe  (Crocosma  aurea  PL,  Babicma 
aurea  Ketsch.,  order  Iridacece)  are  used  in  South  Africa  as  a  substitute 
for  saffron.  The  corolla  tube  is  cylindrical,  broadening  into  a  funnel- 
shaped  lobed  extremity.  The  stigma  branches  are  thick,  club-shaped 
at  the  ends.  According  to  Heine  the  flowers  contain  a  coloring  sub- 
stance soluble  in  hot  water  which  is  similar  to  the  crocin  of  saffron. 


flAIZE   SILK. 

The  dried  thread-like  styles  and  stigmas  of  Zea  Mays  L.,  known  as 
maize  or  corn  silk,  are  used  in  medicine  and  chopped  into  short  pieces 
as  an  adulterant  of  saffron.  The  threads  are  distinguished  from  saffron 
by  their  flattened,  strap-shaped  form.  Under  a  low  power  two  parallel 
bundles,  one  near  each  margin,  are  evident.  Multicellular  hairs  similar 
to  those  of  marigold,  but  smaller  (0.4-0.8  mm.),  occur  on  the  epidermis. 
The  cell  contents  dissolve  in  alkali  to  a  brown  liquid. 

CLOVES. 

Cloves  are  the  flower-buds  of  a  small  evergreen  tree  (Eugenia  caryo- 
phyllata  Thbg.,  Jambosa  Caryophyllus  Ndz.,  Caryophyllus  aromaticus 


FlG.  559.  Cloves  (Eugenia  caryophyllata).  A  flower  bud  in  longitudinal  section,  X3 
B  fruit,  natural  size.  C  fruit  in  longitudinal  section,  X2.  D  embryo,  natural 
size.  (LUERSSEN.) 

L.,  order  Myrtacece),  a  native  of  the  Molucca  Islands,  but  now  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  the  Philippines,  the  Sunda  Islands,  Southern  India, 


CLOWS.  633 

Zanzibar  and  the  neighboring  islands,  the  Antilles,  and  tropical  South 
America.  The  thrice-forked  corymbs,  with  flowers  in  groups  of  three, 
appear  twice  a  year,  in  June  and  December.  The  buds  are  either  picked 
by  hand  or  beaten  from  the  tree  with  reeds  and  collected  on  cloths  beneath. 
They  are  usually  dried  in  the  sun,  during  which  process  the  color  changes 
to  brown. 

Dried  cloves  (Fig.  559)  have  a  rounded  or  somewhat  flattened,  wrinkled, 
adherent  calyx  tube,  about  i  cm.  long  and  3  mm.  in  diameter,  which 
expands  somewhat  at  the  end,  and  divides  into  four  thick,  blunt  lobes. 
In  the  calyx  tube  towards  the  top  are  two  small  cavities  containing  numer- 


FIG.  560.     Cloves.     Cross  section   through   calyx  tube.     X^S-     (MoELLER.) 

ous  ovules.     The  four  petals  alternate  with  the  sepals,  and  overlap  to 
form  a  globular  head,  within  which  are  numerous  curved  stamens  about 

a  single  style. 

Cloves  contain  15-25  per  cent  of  essential  oil,  which  exudes  in  minute 
drops  on  pressing  with  the  finger  nail. 


HISTOLOGY. 


Calyx.    A  cross  section  of  the  calyx  tube  slightly  magnified  (Fig.  560) 
shows  an  outer  ring  of  oil  cavities,  an  inner  ring  of  bundles,  and  a  slender 


634 


SPICES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


axis.      The  structure  seen  with  higher  magnification   (Fig.   561)  is  as 
follows : 

1.  Epidermis  (ep).     The  wrinkled   epidermis   consists   of  very  small 
cells  with  uncommonly  thick  cuticle  (15  /*).     In  surface  view  (Fig.  563,  A) 
the  cells  are  sharply  polygonal.     Stomata  occur  here  and  there. 

2.  Parenchyma.     In  the  outer  layers    (p  \)   the   cells   are  somewhat 
radially  elongated,  with  thin  walls.     Proceeding  inwards  the  cells  become 
isodiametric  and  the  walls  increase  in  thickness   (p  2)-     Yellow  masses 


FIG.  561.  Cloves.  Cross  section  through  calyx  tube,  ep  epidermis  withe  cuticle;  p\,p2,pz 
three  forms  of  parenchyma;  o  oil  cavity;  g  fibro- vascular  bundle  with  narrow  spiral 
vessel  and  thick-walled  bast  fibers.  Xi6o.  (MOELLER.) 

becoming  blue-black  with  iron  chloride  are  the  visible  contents.  The 
oil  cavities  are  in  2  to  3  irregular  rows,  and,  being  commonly  over  200  ,« 
in  diameter,  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 

3.  The  Bundles  (Fig.  561,  g;  Fig.  562)  contain  very  small  spiral  vessels 
arranged  in  radial  rows,  and  a  few  strikingly  broad  bast  fibers  (50  /*). 
These  latter  are  the  only  sclerenchyma  elements  in  cloves.  Numerous 
rosettes  of  calcium  oxalate  occur  in  crystal  fibers  in  the  bundles  and  in 
small  groups  elsewhere. 


CLOVES. 


635 


4.  Spongy  Parenchyma  (p3).  Chains  of  small  parenchyma  cells 
about  large  intercellular  spaces  form  a  ring  inside  the  bundle  ring. 

The  calyx  lobes  are  composed  of  much  the  same  elements  as  the  tube. 

The  Corolla  is  similar  in  structure  to  the  calyx.  The  epidermal 
cells  of.  the  outer  surface  (Fig.  563,  B)  are  isodiametric,  with  wavy  walls ; 
those  of  the  inner  surface  (C)  isodiametric  or  sp  cr 

elongated,  with  straight  or  curved  walls.  A 
concentric  arrangement  of  the  latter  about  grow- 
ing centers  is  here  and  there  evident.  Large 
oil  cavities  form  a  layer  near  the  outer  surface, 
while  smaller  ones  adjoin  the  inner  surface 
(Fig.  563,  C).  The  bundles  are  narrow  (50  //). 

The  Stamens  and  Styles  contain  elements 
much  like  those  described,  but  more  delicate. 

The  Pollen  Grains  (Fig.  564)  occur  in  great 
numbers  in  the  anthers.  They  are  rounded- 
triangular,  and  have  distinct  pores  in  the  blunt 
corners. 


FIG.  562.  Cloves.  Longi- 
tudinal section  through 
fibre-vascular  bundle,  sp 
spiral  vessel;  h  bast  fiber 
with  broad  cavity;  cr  crys- 
tal fibers.  (MOELLER.) 


DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole  Cloves  should  contain  the  full  amount 
of  essential  oil  and  be  free   from  dirt   and  con- 
siderable amounts  of  stems.     When  pressed  with 
the  finger  nail  small  drops  of  oil  should  exude.     A  deficiency  of  oil  in 
the  cleaned  cloves  indicates  either  that  the  product  has  lost  strength 

st  A 


FIG.  ^  Cloves.  Epidermal  tissues  from  various  parts.  A  from  calyx  tube;  B  from 
outer  surface  of  petal;  C  from  inner  surface  of  petal  with  underlying  oil  cavity  and 
crystal  rosettes.  X 160.  (MOELLER.) 

by  long  exposure,  or  that  exhausted  cloves,  the  by-product  from  the  dis- 
tillation of  oil  of  cloves,  have  been  added.  T.  F.  Hanausek  describes 
artificial  cloves  made  from  dough,  powdered  bark,  and  clove  powder, 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 

and  Koenig  another  moulded  product  made  from  starch,  gum,  and  oil 
of  cloves.     Such  products  disintegrate  on  soaking  in  water. 

Ground    Cloves.    The  chief  elements  are  the  blunt  triangular  pollen 
grains  (Fig.  564),  the  epidermal  layers  (Fig.  563), 
the    bundles    (Fig.    562)    with     crystal    chamber 
fibers  (cr),  and  the  thick- walled  bast  fibers   (6). 
Molisch  calls   attention  to  the  needle  crystals  of 
an  eugenol  salt   often    found  after  treating  with 
alkali.     Starch  is  absent,  also  stone  cells. 
FIG.  564.    Cloves.    Pollen         The   adulterants    include   clove  stems   (yellow 
LEE!)*'  *  "  stone  cells,  reticulated  vessels,  small  starch  grains, 

cork),  cocoanut  shells  (brown  stone  cells  of  curi- 
ous forms),  red  sandalwood  (wood  elements  with  red  color,  soluble  in 
alkali),  also  various  starchy  and  non-starchy  products. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:  Berg  (3);  Hanausek,  T.  F.  (10,  16); 
Hassall  (19);  Hilger  (10);  Leach  (25);  Linsbauer  (48);  Mace  (26);  Meyer,  A. 
(27);  Moeller  (29,  30,  31,  32);  Planchon  et  Collin  (34);  Schimper  (37);  Tschirch  u. 
Oesterle  (40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42);  Vogl  (43,  45). 

HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Kunstliche  Gewurznelken.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg.  1889,  3. 
KRAEMER:  A  Chemical  and  Microscopical   Examination  of  Cloves.     Am.  J.   Phar. 
1894,  66,  479. 

CLOVE   STEflS. 

Clove  stems,  the  pedicels  removed  from  the  flower-buds  in  harvesting, 
are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  oil  of  cloves  and  as  an  adulterant  of 
ground  cloves  and  allspice.  They  vary  in  diameter  (1-4  mm.)  accord- 
ing as  they  are  stems  of  the  first,  second,  or  third  grade,  and  have  a 
smooth  yellow  or  wrinkled  brown  surface.  The  product  contains  about 
5  per  cent  of  essential  oil. 

HISTOLOGY. 

1.  The  Epidermis,  like  that  of  the  calyx  tube,  consists  of  polygonal 
cells  and  stomata.     Sometimes  the  epidermis  is  replaced  by  small  cork 
cells. 

2.  Cortex.     The  ground  tissue  is  parenchyma  containing  a  brown  sub- 
stance partly  soluble  in  water  and  alkali,  with  the  reactions  of  tannin, 
small  starch  grains  (3-5  /*),  and  rosettes  and  simple  crystals  of  calcium 
oxalate.     Oil  cavities   occur  beneath   the   epidermis,   and  yellow  stone 


CLOVE  STEMS.     CLOVE  FRUIT. 


637 


cells  (Fig.  565,  st)  both  there  and  in  the  inner  layers.  The  stone  cells 
in  the  outer  layers  are  small,  thickened  only  on  the  inner  side;  those 
further  inward  are  large  (up  to  i  mm.),  tangentially  elongated,  uniformly 
thickened,  faintly  stratified,  pierced  by  branching  pores. 

3.  The  Bundles  consist  of  narrow  (25  p)  reticulated  and  scalariform 
vessels  (Fig.  565,  g)  with  phloem  and  bast  fibers  on  both  the  outer  and 


FIG.  565.     Clove  Stems,     st  stone  cells  from  cortex;    m  star-shaped  stone  cell  from  pith; 
g  fibro-vascular  bundle;   b  bast  fibers  and  stone  cells  from  bast.     Xi6o.     (MOELLER.) 

inner  sides.     The  bast  fibers  (b)  are  700  /*  long,  45  n  or  less  broad,  with 
very  narrow  lumen  and  few  pores. 

4.  Pith.  The  parenchyma  contains  small  starch  grains  and  oxalate 
crystals  like  those  of  the  cortex.  Regularly  formed  stone  cells,  often 
star-shaped  (m),  are  also  present. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  most  important  elements  are  the  yellow  stone  cells  (Fig.  565,  st, 
m)  and  the  reticulated  and  scalariform  vessels  (g).  Less  noticeable  are 
starch  grains,  simple  crystals,  and  cork  cells.  None  of  these  elements 
occur  in  the  flower- buds. 

CLOVE    FRUIT. 

Mother  cloves,  the  fully  ripened  fruit  of  the  clove  tree,  are  employed 
in  limited  amount  in  the  manufacture  of  medicines  and  liquors. 

Although  the  ovary  in  its  early  stages  of  development  has  two  cells 


638 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


and  numerous  ovules,  only  one  cell  and  one  seed  are  found  in  the  ripe 
fruit  (Fig.  559,  C).  The  latter  is  but  a  swollen  and  ripened  clove,  25  mm. 
long,  8  mm.  thick,  crowned  with  the  incurved  calyx  teeth  and  the  remains 
of  the  style,  but  lacking  the  corolla  and  stamens. 

The  seed  fills  the  fruit  cavity  completely  and  resembles  a  small  date 
stone. 


HISTOLOGY. 


The   Pericarp  is  not  materially  altered  in  structure  during  ripening 
except  .that   sclerenchyma    elements  (Fig.  566,  st)  are    developed  about 


FIG.  566.  Clove  Fruit.  Tissues  of  pericarp  in  surface  view,  sp  spiral  vessels  and  epicarp; 
p  brown  parenchyma  with  underlying  oil  cavity;  st  stone  cells  and  fibers;  s  endocarp. 
X  1 60.  (MOELLER.) 

the  bundles.  These  vary  from  bast  fibers  Boo  [i  long  to  isodiametric 
stone  cells,  and  display  a  great  variety  of  curious  knotty  forms.  They 
are  easily  prepared  for  study  by  crushing  a  piece  of  the  soaked  peri- 
carp on  a  slide  and  treating  with  a  drop  of  alkali. 

The  Embryo  (Fig.  567)  consists  of  two  dark  red-brown,  wrinkled 
cotyledons  on  a  radicle  upward  of  i  cm.  long.  The  outer  surface  of 
the  cotyledons  is  finely  granular. 

1.  Epidermis  (ep).     A  layer  of  small  cells  (12  /*)  makes  up  the  epi- 
dermal layer. 

2.  Oil   Cells    (200  fj.  or  loss),  containing  essential  oil   and  a  brown 
pigment,  are  distributed  in  the  subepidermal  layers  of  ground  parenchyma. 

3.  Starch  Cells  of  large  size   (45  /*)   and  rounded  form,   with  thick 
porous  walls  and  intercellular  spaces,  resemble  in  their  cell-structure  the 


CLOYE  FRUIT.     CAPERS.  639 

cotyledon  tissues  of  some  of  the  leguminous  seeds,  though  the  starch  grains 
(am)  are  very  different,  being  pear-shaped  or  truncated  with  a  small 
hilum  at  the  broader  end  and  delicate  markings.  The  starch  grains 
are  seldom  more  than  40  /£  and  quite  as  seldom  less  than  10  /i.  Not- 
withstanding the  truncated  ends,  suggesting  contact  with  other  grains, 
compound  grains  are  not  evident.  Fissures  occur  in  some  of  the  grains. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The  pear-shaped  starch  grains    (Fig.  567,  am),  knotty  bast  fibers, 
and  stone  cells  (Fig.   566,  st)  are  highly  characteristic,  the  latter  being 


ep 


FIG.  567.     Clove  Fruit.     Elements  of  seed,     ep  epidermis  and  E  ground  tissue  of  cotyledon; 
am  starch  grains.     Xsoo.     (MoELLER.) 


quite  different  from  the  sclerenchyma  elements  of  cloves  or  clove  stems. 
Banana,  yam,  sago,  and  some  other  tropical  starches  resemble  that 
of  mother  cloves ;  still  these  are  seldom  added  to  spices,  and  if  present 
there  is  little  fear  of  confusion,  as  the  stone  cells  and  other  tissues  of  the 
latter  are  characteristic. 

CAPERS. 

Capers  are  the  flower-buds  of  a  shrub  (Capparis  spinosa  L.,  order 
Capparidacece),  a  native  of  Mediterranean  countries,  where  it  is  also 
extensively  cultivated.  The  flowers  have  four  green,  thickish,  tough 
sepals,  inconspicuous  delicate  petals,  numerous  stamens,  and  a  stalked 
ovary.  They  are  preserved  in  vinegar  and  salt,  and  are  much  esteemed 
as  a  condiment. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Sepals.  The  Epidermis  is  characterized  by  the  large  cells  with  stri- 
ated cuticle  (Fig.  568).  In  the  Mesophyl  are  groups  of  cells  containing 


640 


SPICES  AND   CONDIMENTS. 


numerous  yellow  crystalline  needles  of  a  glucoside  (rutin)  embedded  in 
formless  masses.     These  dissolve  in  alkali  to  a  yellow  liquid. 

Petals.    The  epidermis  consists  of    smaller  cells  than  those  of  the 
sepals,  and  almost  circular  stomata.     On  the  inner  surface  are  curious 


FIG.  568.    Capers  (Capparis  spinosa).    Epidermis       FIG.  569.     Capers.      Hairs  from  inner 
of  calyx  in  surface  view.     (MOELLER.)  surface  of  petal.     (MOELLER.) 

club-shaped    hairs    (Fig.    569)    with    irregular   constrictions.     They    are 
easily  removed  by  scraping. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Preserved  capers  should  be  small,  round,  and  unexpanded.  If  old 
they  are  soft  and  discolored.  A  bright-green  color  indicates  that  they 
have  been  greened  with  copper.  The  following  are  adulterants: 

German  Capers,  the  flower-buds  of  Spartium  scoparium  L.  (Papilio- 
nacece),  are  prepared  in  Holland.  They  have  a  two-lipped  calyx,  papilio- 
naceous corolla,  ten  stamens  in  a  bundle,  and  a  coiled  style. 

Flower-buds  of  Marsh  Marigold  (Caltha  palustris  L. — RanunculacecE] 
have  five  yellow  sepals,  no  petals,  and  5-10  pistils. 

The  flower-buds  of  the  garden  Nasturtium  (Tropceolum  majus  L.— 
Tropaolacece)  have  a  spurred  clayx,  five  petals  with  claws,  eight  stamens 
and  a  three-celled  ovary.  The  green  fruit  is  irregularly  trefoil-shaped 
and  ribbed.  Both  buds  and  fruit  are  substituted  for  capers. 

Caper  Fruits  (Cornichons  de  cdprier)  are  elongated,  many-seeded 
berries.  They  are  sometimes  mixed  with  the  buds. 


PART  X. 

COMMERCIAL  STARCHES. 


COMMERCIAL    STARCHES. 

Although  starch  is  found  in  enormous  quantities  in  leaves  as  the 
first  visible  product  of  assimilation  (assimilation  starch),  no  great  amount 
accumulates  in  these  organs,  as  it  is  continually  being  converted  into 
sugars  or  other  soluble  carbohydrates  and  translocated  to  different  parts 
of  the  plant  to  build  up  tissues  and  form  cell-contents.  For  this  reason 
as  well  as  the  small  size  of  the  grains  and  the  difficulty  of  removing  the 
enveloping  chlorophyl,  the  starch  of  leaves  cannot  be  profitably  extracted 
on  a  commercial  scale. 

Transitory  Starch,  that  is,  starch  temporarily  deposited  in  growing 
points,  barks,  and  immature  fruits  and  seeds,  like  the  starch  of  assimilation, 
has  small  grains  and  does  not  accumulate  in  considerable  quantities. 

Reserve  Starch.  The  only  form  of  starch  available  for  the  manu- 
facture of  the  commercial  product  is  the  reserve  supply  stored  up  in 
roots,  rhizomes,  tubers,  and  stems  for  the  needs  of  the  plants  themselves 
or  else  in  fruits  and  seeds  for  the  needs  of  the  young  offspring.  The 
reserve  starch  of  the  cassava  plant  (Manihot)  and  yam  (Dioscorea)  is  stored 
in  the  fleshy  roots,  of  Bermuda  arrowroot  (Maranta)  and  turmeric  (Cur- 
cuma) in  the  rhizomes  or  rootstocks,  of  the  potato  (Solanum)  in  the  tubers, 
of  the  sago  palm  (Metroxylori)  in  the  stem,  of  the  banana  (Musa)  in  the 
pericarp  or  fruit. 

It  is,  however,  questionable  whether  the  starch  of  the  banana  should 
be  classed  under  this  head,  for  reasons  given  on  p.  658. 

Among  seeds,  the  reserve  starch  of  the  legumes  (Leguminosce)  is  stored 
in  the  cotyledons,  of  the  cereals  (Graminice)  and  buckwheats  (Polygo- 
nacece)  in  the  endosperm,  and  of  pepper  and  cubebs  (Piperacea)  in  the 
peris  perm.  By  selection,  crossing,  and  cultivation,  the  size  of  these 
natural  storehouses  as  well  as  their  starch  content  are  greatly  increased 
beyond  what  the  needs  of  the  plant  demand. 

Formation  o]  Reserve  Starch.  Schimper  was  the  first  to  demonstrate 
that  reserve  starch  does  not  separate  directly  from  the  protoplasm  of  the 

643 


644 


COMMERCIAL  STARCHES. 


cell,  but  is  formed  through  the  agency  of  starch-forming  bodies  (leuco- 
plasts), physiologically  similar  to  chlorophyl  grains  (chloroplasts),  but 
differing  from  them  in  that  they  perform  their  function  in  the  dark. 
Closely  related  morphologically  to  both  leucoplasts  and  chloroplasts  are 
the  chromoplasts  or  color  bodies  of  flowers  and  fruits. 

Leucoplasts   are  not  easily  found  in  most  reservoirs  of  starch,  but 
may  be  studied  in  sections  of  the  pseudo-bulb  of  Phajus  grandiflorus 


.A' 


FlG.  570.  Starch  Grains  and  Leucoplasts  from  the  pseudo-bulb  of  Phajus  grandiftoms.  A 
fully  developed  grains;  a  partially  developed  grains  with  L  adhering  leucoplasts;  A' 
starch  grain  with  layers  deposited  on  one  side;  L'  leucoplasts  arranged  about  the  cell 
nucleus  in  which  are  granular  bodies.  (VOGL.) 

(Fig.  570),  a  well-known  greenhouse  orchid,  also  in  the  rhizome  of  Iris 
Germanica. 

Arthur  Meyer  explains  some  interesting  relations  between  the  shape 
of  the  starch  grains  and  the  method  of  formation.  If  a  single  grain  is 
formed  within  the  leucoplast  it  will  grow  uniformly  on  all  sides  and 
have  a  round  outline,  a  central  hilum,  and  concentric  rings.  If,  how- 
ever, the  grain  is  formed  on  the  sides  of  the  leucoplast  it  will  grow  only 
on  the  side  of  attachment,  and  as  a  consequence  .will  be  elongated  and 
have  an  excentric  hilum  and  excentric  rings.  If  several  grains  are  formed 
within  a  leucoplast,  the  sides  in  contact  will  be  flattened;  the  grains  on 
the  surface  of  the  aggregate  will  have  both  rounded  and  flattened  sur- 
faces, while  those  in  the  inner  part,  in  contact  with  grains  on  all  sides, 
will  be  polygonal. 


COMMERCIAL   STARCHES.  645 

Chemical  Composition.  Although  starch  from  different  plants  has 
same  percentage  composition,  the  formula  being  C6Hi0O5,  or  some 
multiple,  it  is  not  one  single  substance.  Three  isomeric  carbohydrates 
occurring  in  varying  proportions  have  been  described:  (i)  granulose 
or  /9-amylose,  colored  blue  with  iodine;  (2)  starch  cellulose  or  a-amylose, 
colored  yellow  with  iodine,  and  (3)  amylodextrine,  colored  red  with 
iodine.  True  starch  consists  of  granulose  with  a  small  amount  of  starch 
cellulose  and  is  colored  blue  with  iodine.  The  amylodextrine  starch  of 
mace,  first  described  by  Tschirch,  contains,  however,  only  small  amounts 
of  these  substances,  but  consists  largely  of  amylodextrine,  and  conse- 
quently is  colored  red  by  iodine.  Starch  cellulose  is  obtained  as  deli- 
cate skeletons  by  treating  starch  grains  with  saliva. 

Starch  is  converted  into  a  paste  by  boiling  with  water.  It  passes 
successively  into  soluble  starch,  dextrine,  and  dextrose  on  boiling  with 
dilute  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid.  The  diastase  of  malt  and  the  ptyalin 
of  saliva  convert  it  into  maltose.  By  heating  at  150-160°  C.  it  is  con- 
verted into  dextrine.  It  is  soluble  in  caustic  soda  or  potash,  and  for 
this  reason  these  alkalies  are  used  to  clear  starchy  mounts  for  the  obser- 
vation of  the  tissues. 

The  Microscopic  Characters  of  starch  differ  greatly  in  the  different 
varieties,  especially  as  to  the  presence  or  absence  of  aggregates,  the  form 
and  size  of  the  grains,  their  deportment  with  polarized  light,  the  form, 
position,  distinctness  of  the  hilum  or  nucleus,  the  form  and  distinct- 
ness of  the  rings  (Fig.  571). 

Aggregates.  The  grains  may  be  separate  or  more  or  less  united  into 
aggregates  which  may  consist  of  any  number  of  individuals  from  two  to 
several  hundred.  In  the  mature  organ,  the  aggregates  may  be  either  intact 
or  largely  broken  up  into  their  component  grains. 

The  Forms  of  the  grains  are  so  numerous  even  in  the  same  variety  as 
to  forbid  accurate  classification,  but  the  following  are  the  most  striking: 

1.  Globular.     The  starch  of  the  peanut  and  some  grains  of  maize. 

2.  Lenticular.     The  large  grains  of  wheat,  rye,  and  barley. 

3.  Ellipsoidal.     The  starch  of  legumes. 

4.  Ovoid  or  pear-shaped.     The  starch  of  potato,  canna,   Bermuda 
arrowroot,  yam,  and  banana. 

5.  Truncated.     Most  of  the  grains  of  cassava,  batata,  and  sago. 

6.  Polygonal.     The  starch  of  maize,  rice,  oats,  and  buckwheat. 
Globular  and  lenticular   grains  ordinarily  appear  the  same,  but  if, 

as  recommended  by  Tschirch  and  Oesterle,  the  grains  are  made  to  move 


646 


COMMERCIAL  STARCHES. 


under  the  cover-glass  by  drawing  the  liquid  to  one  side  by  means  of  a 
bit  of  filter-paper,  lenticular  grains  alternately  appear  circular  or  elliptical 
according  as  their  position.  When  viewed  on  edge,  lenticular  grains 
are  very  similar  in  appearance  to  ellipsoidal  grains.  Pear-shaped  grains 
differ  greatly,  often  passing  into  globular,  rod-shaped,  sickle-shaped, 
and  various  irregular  forms. 

The  term  truncated  grain  as  here  used  includes  not  only  kettledrum 
forms  but  forms  with  two  or  even  three  plain  surfaces;  when,  however, 


<&•&.::::    $f!tfvl 
£&'•     *  #     a 


12 


FIG.  571.  Forms  of  Starch  Grains,  i  wheat;  2  pea;  3  curcuma;  4  potato;  5  sago;  6  oats; 
7  Colchicum?  8  cockle;  ga  Euphorbia  re-sinif era;  gb  Euphorbia  Helioscopia;  10  banana; 
ii  maize;  12  Iris  Germanica  (with  adhering  leucoplasts).  Xsoo.  (VoGL.) 

several  plain  surfaces  are  present,  the  form  is  more  nearly  polygonal. 
Truncated  forms  with  one  and  two  plain  surfaces  are  separated  members 
of  twins  and  triplets,  while  polygonal  grains  are  the  inner  members  of 
larger  aggregates. 

The  Size  of  starch  grains,  measured  through  the  longest  diameter, 
ranges  from  less  than  i  /*  to  over  150  /*.  In  some  varieties  the  grains 
are  nearly  all  large  (canna),  in  others  all  small  (rice,  buckwheat),  in 
others  still,  large  and  small  (wheat,  rye,  and  barley).  Not  only  should 


COMMERCIAL  STARCHES.  647 

the  maximum  and  minimum  sizes  be  noted,  but  also  the  commonest 
(not  the  average)  size. 

The  Hilum  or  organic  center  of  the  grain  is  conspicuous  in  some 
grains  (maize,  legumes),  hardly  noticeable  in  others  (wheat,  rye,  and 
barley).  It  may  be  isodiametric  (in  most  cases  a  mere  point,  in  maize, 
however,  of  considerable  size)  or  else  strongly  elongated,  appearing  like 
a  narrow  cleft  (legumes). 

Of  great  importance  is  its  position,  which  may  be  central  or  nearly 
so  (cereals,  cassava),  or  else  excentric,  (potato,  Bermuda  arrowroot, 
turmeric,  canna).  The  rings  of  the  grain  are  circular  or  excentric, 
according  to  the  location  of  the  hilum  about  which  they  are  arranged. 

Polarized  light  is  of  great  value  in  locating  the  position  of  the  hilum, 
since  the  dark  crosses  which  appear  on  the  bright  grains  with  crossed 
Nicol  prisms,  intersect  at  that  point  (Fig.  572).  In  grains  with  central 


FIG.  572.     Starch  Grains  viewed  with   Polarized  Light.      I  potato.      II  curcuma.    /// 
wheat;     IV  bean.     Xsoo.     (WINTON.) 

hilum,  the  dark  lines  intersect  at  the  center,  forming  X-shaped  crosses. 
In  grains  with  excentric  hilum  they  often  intersect  so  near  one  end 
that  they  appear  to  be  V-shaped.  The  crosses  in  leguminous  grains 

(if  they  can  be  so  termed)  are  the  shape  of  two  Y's,  united  thus  :  J* 

Since  the  hilum  contains  more  water  than  other  parts  of  the  grain, 
clefts  appear  on  drying,  which  in  the  cereals  radiate  from  the  center, 
in  legumes  form  branches  on  both  sides  of  the  elongated  hilum,  and  in 
Bermuda  arrowroot  form  double  curves  resembling  the  wings  of  a  soar- 
ing bird. 


648  COMMERCIAL   STARCHES. 

The  Rings  vary  greatly  in  distinctness.  They  are  best  seen  with 
oblique  illumination,  and  may  be  rendered  more  distinct  by  treatment 
with  dilute  chromic  acid,  as  recommended  by  Weiss  and  Wiesner,  or 
by  heating  the  dry  starch.  They  are  not  evident  in  wheat,  rye,  or  barley 
starch  except  under  favorable  conditions. 

As  has  been  stated,  they  are  circular  or  excentric  according  to  the 
location  of  the  hilum.  Some  authorities  regard  these  rings  as  due  to 
differences  in  water  content  of  alternate  layers,  the  hilum  containing 
the  highest  percentage. 

The  Crystalline  Structure  of  starch  grains  is  shown  by  their  deport- 
ment with  polarized  light.  Viewed  with  crossed  Nicol  prisms,  the 
grains  form  in  the  dark  field  luminous  objects  with  more  or  less  distinct 
crosses.  These  crosses  are  very  distinct  in  some  varieties  (canna,  potato, 
maize),  indistinct  in  others  (wheat,  rye,  barley). 

If  the  selenite  plate  is  added  to  the  polarizing  apparatus,  a  beautiful 
play  of  colors  Is  obtained  in  many  varieties. 

Various  theories  have  been  advanced  as  to  the  crystalline  structure 
of  the  grains,  but  at  present  they  are  regarded  as  double  refractive  sphaero- 
crystals  or  sphaerocrystalloids. 

Certain  Enzymes,  particularly  those  of  sprouting  grain,  act  slowly 
on  starch  grains,  the  partially  dissolved  grains  showing  very  distinct 
rings  and  branching  grooves  resembling  the  burrows  of  insects  (Fig.  30). 

Heating,  whether  dry  as  in  the  manufacture  of  dextrine  and  the  roast- 
ing of  seeds  for  coffee  substitutes,  or  wet  as  in  the  baking  of  bread,  causes 
the  grains  to  swell  and  assume  greatly  distorted  forms.  Notwithstanding 
this  distortion,  a  considerable  number  of  the  grains  usually  preserve 
enough  of  their  characteristics  to  permit  of  identification  (Fig.  31). 

Commerical  Starch.  Wiesner  describes  twenty  distinct  starches 
which  are  made  on  a  commercial  scale,  but  at  least  half  of  these  are 
of  only  local  importance. 

Wheat  and  potato  starch  are  mostly  made  on  the  Continent;  rice 
starch  in  England;  curcuma  and  sago  starch  in  the  East  Indies;  Ber- 
muda arrowroot  in  the  West  Indies  and  other  warm  regions;  cassava 
starch  in  Brazil  and  other  tropical  countries;  canna  starch  in  Australia; 
and  maize  starch  in  the  United  States. 

Process  oj  Manufacture.  Starch  differs  from  flour  in  that  it  is  a  product 
of  elutriation  rather  than  of  milling,  and  consists  almost  entirely  of  one 
chemical  substance,  whereas  flour  contains  proteids,  fat,  cellular  matter 
and  ash  constituents  as  well  as  starch. 


ANALYTICAL  KEY.  649 

The  processes  employed  for  making  different  kinds  of  starch  and  in 
different  factories  for  making  the  same  kind  of  starch  differ  in  details, 
but  are  in  general  principle  the  same.  The  starchy  material  is  reduced 
to  a  pulp  or  powder,  with  or  without  previous  soaking  in  water,  and  the 
starch  washed  out  from  the  tissues  on  sieves.  After  settling  the  super- 
natant liquid  is  poured  off  and  the  residue  is  further  purified  by  washing, 
and  is  finally  dried. 

In  making  wheat  starch  either  the  whole  grain  is  subjected  to  a  fer- 
mentation process,  thus  forming  acetic,  lactic  and  other  organic  acids 
in  which  the  gluten  is  soluble,  or  else  wheat  flour  is  made  into  a  dough 
and  the  starch  is  washed  away  from  the  gluten  on  sieves. 

Agitation  with  dilute  alkali  is  often  employed  in  purifying  starch, 
the  nitrogenous  substances  and  some  other  impurities  being  soluble 
in  alkaline  solutions.  Thorough  washing  of  the  starch  after  this  treat- 
ment is  essential,  otherwise  the  finished  product  is  liable  to  have  a  slight 
alkaline  reaction  which  unfits  it  for  certain  uses. 

Uses.  Starch  is  used  in  preparing  various  articles  of  food,  especially 
puddings  and  confectionery,  also  as  an  ingredient  of  baking-powders. 
Enormous  quantities  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glucose  and  alcoholic 
liquors.  It  is  a  common  adulterant  of  wheat  flour,  chocolate,  cocoa, 
spices,  jellies,  and  other  foods. 

Starch  is  also  employed  in  medicine,  as  a  cosmetic,  and  still  more 
extensively  for  laundry  purposes  and  in  the  arts.  Starch  paste  is  a  product 
of  no  little  commercial  importance. 

•  Microscopic  Examination.  The  technique  of  preparing  starch  for 
examination  is  exceedingly  simple,  and  consists  merely  in  mounting  in  a 
drop  of  water  or  other  medium,  taking  care  not  to  use  too  much  of  the 
material.  Oblique  illumination  aids  in  making  the  rings  distinct.  The 
shape  and  size  of  the  grains,  the  form  and  position  of  the  hilum  and  rings, 
and  the  presence  or  absence  of  aggregates  should  all  be  carefully  noted. 
The  micropolariscope  is  of  no  little  assistance  not  only  in  locating  the 
hilum,  but  in  differentiating  strongly  and  feebly  active  starches. 

Moeller's  Analytical  Key  to  Commercial  Starches. 

A.  All  or  most  of  the  grains  rounded,  not  from  aggregates. 

(a)  Large  grains,  rounded,  with  central  hilum;   small  grains  globular  or  angular. 

i.  Large  grains,  mostly  28-40  n •  •  •  • Wheat. 

(6)  Large  grains  of  various  shapes  (never  lenticular),  with  excentric  hilum. 
*  Many  grains  over  70  /*  long. 


650  COMMERCIAL  STARCHES. 

2.  Grains  under  100  fi't  mostly  oyster-shell  shaped;  hilum  in  the  narrow, 

pointed  end;    here  and   there   aggregates  and  grains  with  two 
hilums ' Potato. 

3.  Many  grains  over  100  /*,  broadly  elliptical  with  a  blunt  point;  hilum 

in  the  pointed  end Canna. 

**  Few  grains  over  70  /*,  much  elongated. 
-hMany  grains  over  50  ,u;  rings  distinct. 

4.  Grains  with  pointed  end,  uniform  in  size  (50-60  /*),  flattened  (seen 

on  edge  narrow) ;  hilum  in  pointed  end Curcuma. 

5.  Grains  not  pointed;  hilum  in  the  narrow  but  rounded  end Yam. 

6.  Grains  not  pointed;  hilum  in  broad,  seldom  in  narrow  end.  .Banana. 
•f  +  Grains  always  under  50  «,  ovate  or  pear-shaped,  not  flattened  or  only 

slightly. 

7.  Grains  nearly  uniform  in  size  (40  /*);  hilum  central  or  in  the  broad 

end,  often  with  cleft Maranta. 

8.  Large  grains  25-40  /*,  club-shaped;    hilum  in  narrow  rounded  end; 

clefts  absent Erythronium. 

4-  +  +  Grains  under  30  /*,  mostly  pear-shaped,  seldom  in  aggregates;  hilum 
and  rings  indistinct  or  lacking. 

9.  Similar  to  sago,  but  grains  smaller  and  without  rings.  Horse-chestnut. 

10.  Many  rounded  angular  grains Chestnut. 

B.  Grains  polygonal  or  rounded,  with  one  or  more  facets  (mostly  from  aggregates). 

(a)  Grains  mostly  polygonal;  hilum  central. 

11.  Grains  very  small  (mostly  6  /*),  sharply  angular Rice. 

12.  Large  grains  (often  20  /*),  polygonal  or  rounded;  hilum  with  clefts. 

Maize. 
(5)  Grains   mostly   kettle-drum-shaped    (from   twins)   or  with   two   facets    (from 

aggregates  of  three). 
*  Aggregates  of  one  large  and  two  or  more  small  grains. 

13.  Large  grains,  often  with  two  separated  (not  adjacent)  facets;    hilum 

excentric Sago. 

**  Aggregates  of  equal-sized  grains. 

14.  Grains  kettle-drum-shaped,  seldom  over  20  /*;  hilum  central;   rings 

indistinct Cassava. 

15.  Grains  sugar-loaf-shaped,  often  up  to  50  /*;  hilum  excentric;  rings 

distinct Sweet  potato. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  General  Bibliography,  pp.  671-674:   Bell  (i);   Berg  (3);   Blyth  (5);   Greenish 
(14);   Hassall  (19);   Mace  (26);   Moeller  (29);    Tschirch    (12);  Tschirch  u.  Oesterle 
(40);  Villiers  et  Collin  (42,  45);  Weisner  (49);  Witmack  (10). 
v.  HOHNEL:    Die  Starke  und  die  Mahlproducte.     Kassel  u.  Berlin,  1882. 


MAIZE  STARCH.  651 

MAIZE   STARCH. 

By  far  the  larger  part  of  the  starch  used  in  the  United  States  is  made 
from  maize  or  Indian  corn  (Zea  Mays).  Maize  starch  is  also  coming 
into  use  in  Europe. 

In  manufacturing  this  product  either  the  whole  grain  is  ground  with 
water  and  the  milky  liquid  separated  from  the  cellular  matter  on  sieves 
or  the  germs  and  bran  are  first  separated  mechanically,  and  only  the 
starchy  endosperm  is  treated  with  water  to  remove  the  starch.  The 
starch  is  allowed  to  settle  from  the  milky  liquid  and  is  washed  several 
times  by  decantation.  In  some  factories  it  is  agitated  with  very  dilute 
caustic  soda,  sulphurous  acid  or  other  chemicals,  to  remove  nitrogenous 
constituents,  traces  of  fat  and  other  impurities. 

Commercial  starch,  glucose,  dextrines  and  other  starch  products 
are  frequently  made  in  the  same  factory,  the  process  of  separation  of 
the  starch  from  the  grain  being  the  same  whatever  the  final  product. 

Maize  starch  as  found  on  the  market  is  either  in  coarse  granules  or 
a  fine  powder.  The  so-called  "  cornstarch  "  used  in  making  confec- 
tionery and  deserts  is  purified  maize  starch  in  powder  form. 

Adulteration  with  potato,  cassava,  and  other  starches  is  occasionally 
practiced. 

Microscopic  Characters  (Fig.  573).  Maize  starch  is  the  only  commer- 
cial variety  with  polygonal  grains  over  15  /*  in  diameter.  Sorghum  starch 


FIG.  573.     Maize  Starch.     X3OO.     (MoELLER.) 


is  hardly  distinguishable  from  maize  starch,  but  is  not  as  yet  prepared 
on  a  commercial  scale. 

Aggregates.     Several    polygonal    or   irregularly    rounded    grains    are 


652  COMMERCIAL   STARCHES. 

often  united,  but  round  or  oval  aggregates,  such  as  are  characteristic 
of  rice  and  oat  starch,  are  not  present. 

Forms.  The  grains  from  the  horny  endosperm  are  sharply  polygonal 
and  stand  out  in  bold  relief.  In  the  floury  part  of  the  kernel  the  grains 
are  irregularly  globular. 

Size.  Both  forms  of  grains  range  up  to  30  /JL  in  diameter,  most  of 
them  being  over  15  p.  Small  grains  occur  in  limited  numbers. 

The  Hilum  is  central  and  usually  very  distinct.  Radiating  clefts  are 
present  in  many  of  the  grains. 

Rings  are  not  evident. 

Polarization  Crosses.  The  grains  are  very  brilliant  with  distinct 
crosses,  but  display  no  marked  play  of  colors  with  the  selenite  plate. 


RICE   STARCH. 

Rice  starch  is  the  most  important  starch  in  England,  where  it  is  made 
in  large  quantities  from  Indian  paddy.  It  is  also  manufactured  on  the 
Continent,  but  not  to  such  an  extent  as  wheat  and  potato  starch. 

Although  rice  (Oryza  saliva)  contains  a  larger  percentage  of  starch 
than  any  of  the  other  common  cereals,  this  starch,  like  that  of  the  horny 
endosperm  of  -maize,  cannot  be  separated  mechanically  until  the  pro- 
teid  matter  is  removed.  This  is  accomplished  commonly  by  soaking 
with  very  diulte  alkali  both  before  and  after  grinding,  less  often  by 
treatment  with  sodium  carbonate,  hydrochloric  acid  or  other  chemicals, 
or  by  fermentation. 

The  commercial  product  is  of  a  pure  white  or  yellowish  color,  accord- 
ing to  its  purity,  and  is  either  in  lumps  or  in  powder  form.  It  is  used  in 
England  chiefly  for  laundry  purposes,  as  a  cosmetic,  and  in  the  arts,  other 
kinds  being  generally  preferred  for  culinary  purposes. 

Microscopic  Characters  (Fig.  574).  The  small  polygonal  grains  dis- 
tinguish this  starch  from  the  other  common  commercial  varieties. 

Aggregates,  consisting  of  from  two  to  upwards  of  a  hundred  grains, 
occur  in  great  numbers  in  the  kernel,  but  are  largely  disintegrated  in  the 
process  of  manufacture. 

Forms.  As  the  grains  exist  in  the  kernel  chiefly  in  aggregates  the 
isolated  individuals  are  either  polygonal  (from  the  interior  of  aggregates) 
or  else  are  rounded  on  some  sides  and  flattened  on  others  (from  the  sur- 
face of  aggregates).  Sharply  polygonal  grains  predominate;  spindle- 


RICE  STARCH.     WHEAT  STARCH.  653 

shaped  forms  such  as  occur  in  oat  starch,  or  perfectly  round  grains,  are 
seldom  present. 


FIG.  574.     Rice  Starch.     X^oo.     (MOELLER.) 

Size.  The  grains  are  2-10  u  in  diameter,  but  seldom  reach  the  latter 
size. 

The  Hilum  is  central  but  is  not  always  evident. 

Rings  are  not  evident. 

Polarization  Crosses.  The  grains  are  brilliant  with  distinct  crosses. 
No  play  of  color  is  evident  with  the  selenite  plate. 

WHEAT   STARCH. 

On  the  Continent  wheat  and  potatoes  are  the  chief  raw  materials 
for  the  manufacture  of  starch.  Wheat  starch  is  made  usually  from  com- 
mon wheat  (Triticum  sativum  vulgare),  although,  according  to  Wiesner, 
spelt  (T.  sat.  spelta)  yields  an  especially  fine  product,  and  English  wheat 
(T.  sat.  turgidum)  gives  a  larger  yield  than  common  wheat.  Macaroni 
wheat,  because  of  its  horny  structure  and  high  content  of  gluten,  is  entirely 
unsuited  for  starch  manufacture,  and  other  varieties  and  species,  although 
occasionally  employed,  are  of  minor  importance. 

The  oldest  process  of  separating  the  starch  is  to  soak  the  whole  or 
coarsely  ground  grain  in  water  until  soft,  crush  between  rollers  and 
remove  the  starch  by  water.  The  product  obtained  by  this  process  has 
a  gray  color  and  contains  more  or  less  gluten.  A  purer  product  is  obtained 
by  subjecting  the  starchy  liquid  to  a  fermentation  process,  which  generates 
organic  acids  in  which  the  gluten  is  soluble.  The  Martin  process  con- 
sists in  making  flour  into  a  dough  and  washing  out  the  starch  on  sieves 
with  continual  kneading.  The  gluten  obtained  as  fr  by-product  in  this 
process  is  valuable  as  a  cattle  food  and  for  various  technical  purposes. 


654  COMMERCIAL  STARCHES. 

The  starch  appears  on  the  market  either  as  lumps,  angular  granules, 
or  a  fine  powder. 

Microscopic  Characters  (Fig.  575).     The  large  lenticular  grains  char- 
acterize.  this  starch. 


FIG.  575.     Wheat  Starch.     Xsoo.     (MOELLER.) 

Aggregates.  The  large  grains  are  never  united,  the  small  grains  only 
rarely. 

Forms.  The  large  grains  are  lenticular,  more  or  less  regularly  cir- 
cular in  outline.  If  mounted  in  considerable  water  and  drawn  across 
the  field  by  means  of  a  piece  of  filter-paper  they  appear  alternately  cir- 
cular and  elliptical,  according  as  they  rest  on  their  sides  or  their  edges. 

The  small  grains  are  usually  globular,  less  often  polygonal. 

Size.  The  large  grains  are  commonly  28-40  u.  in  diameter,  but  in 
rare  instances  reach  50  /JL.  The  small  grains  are  seldom  over  6  /JL  in 
diameter. 

The  Hilum  is  central,  appearing  usually  as  a  mere  dot.  Clefts  are 
rare. 

The  Rings  are  indistinct. 

Polarization  Crosses.  The  large  grains  are  feebly  illuminated  and 
show  indistinct  crosses.  No  play  of  colors  is  evident  with  the  selenite 
plate. 

BUCKWHEAT   STARCH. 

Common  buckwheat  (Fagopyrum  esculentum)  is  used  by  certain 
English  manufacturers  for  making  starch,  although  as  yet  the  product 
is  not  of  considerable  commercial  importance. 


BUCKWHEAT  STARCH.     LEGUMINOUS  STARCHES. 


655 


Microscopic  Characters  (Fig.  576).   Although  this  starch  is  similar  to 
rice  starch,  the  rod-shaped  aggregates  furnish  a  means  of  distinction. 


FIG.  576.     Buckwheat  Starch.     X3oo.     (MOELLER.) 

Rod- shaped  Aggregates,  consisting  of  several  grains  but  with  no  evi- 
dent lines  of  demarcation,  are  highly  characteristic.  They  are  irregular 
in  shape  and  have  numerous  constrictions. 

Forms.     Polygonal,  or  rounded  polygonal. 

Size.  The  diameters  range  from  less  than  2  u.  to  over  15  /*,  but  are 
commonly  6-12  ,«. 

The  Hilum  is  conspicuous. 

Rings  are  not  evident  even  after  treatment  with  chromic  acid. 

Polarization  Crosses.     These  are  distinct  but  not  striking. 


LEGUMINOUS    STARCHES. 


Starch  is  occasionally  made  from  beans,  peas,  and  other  legumes, 
although  seldom  on  a  commercial  scale. 

Microscopic  Characters  (Fig.  577).     Leguminous  starches  are  mostly  of 


, 


FlG.  577.     Lentil  Starch.     Xsoo.     (MoELLER.) 

the  same  type,  although  differing  somewhat  in  form  and  size, 
soidal  grains  with  elongated  hilum  are  highly  characteristic. 
Aggregates  are  rare. 


The  ellip- 


656 


COMMERCIAL  STARCHES. 


Forms.  Ellipsoidal  grains  predominate,  although  reniform,  trefoil- 
shaped  and  various  irregular  forms  are  not  uncommon. 

Size.  In  some  species  the  length  of  the  grain  reaches  100  /*,  but  in 
most  of  the  common  species  is  about  50  /*. 

Hilum.  The  elongated  hilum,  often  with  branching  clefts,  is  char- 
acteristic. In  some  grains  the  hilum  and  branches  being  filled  with 
air  appear  black;  in  other  grains  both  are  indistinct. 

Rings  distinct. 

Polarization  Crosses,  because  of  the  elongated  hilum,  are  shaped  thus : 


CHESTNUT   STARCH. 

In  southern  Europe  the  chestnut  (Castanea  saliva  Mill.)  is  used 
for  the  preparation  of  both  flour  and  starch.  Vogl  states  that  chestnut 
starch  is  often  described  as  horse-chestnut  starch. 

Microscopic  Characters  (Fig.  578).  The  large  grains  of  curious 
shapes  characterize  this  starch. 


FIG.  578.     Chestnut  Starch.     (MOELLER.) 

Aggregates  of  two  or  three  grains  occur  here  and  there,  but  are  not 
abundant. 

Forms.  The  grains  are  ellipsoidal,  pear-shaped,  kidney-shaped, 
heart-shaped,  etc.  They  are  often  quite  sharp-pointed. 

Size.  The  large  grains  are  15-30  /j.  long,  the  small  grains  1-3  /*. 
Intermediate  forms  are  rare. 


CHESTNUT  STARCH.     HORSE-CHESTNUT  STARCH.  657 

Hilum.  This  is  sometimes  round,  somet:mes  elongated,  forming  a 
cleft  much  as  in  leguminous  starches. 

Rings  are  indistinct  or  wanting. 

Polarization  Crosses  are  distinct  but  not  striking.  With  the  selenite 
plate  a  dull  play  of  colors  is  evident. 

HORSE=CHESTNUT   STARCH. 

In  France  a  starch  is  made  from  the  horse-chestnut  (Aesculus  Hippo- 
castanum  L.,  order  Sapindacea),  which,  although  unfit  for  food  because 
of  its  bitter  taste,  is  useful  in  the  arts.  According  to  Vogl  it  is  gray- 
white,  whereas  chestnut  starch  is  pure  white. 

Microscopic  Characters  (Fig.  579).  Especially  noticeable  are  the 
grotesque  shapes. 


FIG.  579.     Horse-chestnut  Starch.     X3co.     (MOELLER.) 

Aggregates.  Quite  often  two  or  more  grains  are  united  to  form  irregu- 
larly shaped  aggregates.  Suppantschitsch  (see  Wiesner)  rightly  notes 
that  the  individuals  of  these  aggregates  are  so  closely  consolidated  that 
they  can  be  distinguished  only  by  the  aid  of  the  polariscope. 

Forms.  Among  the  grains  are  numerous  pear-shaped  reniform,  and 
irregularly  swollen  forms. 

Size.  The  large  grains  are  mostly  20-30  /JL  long,  but  occasionally 
reach  40  /*.  The  small  grains  are  often  scarcely  measurable. 

Hilum.  This  is  distinct  and  is  situated  at  the  broader  end.  A  longi- 
tudinal cleft  passing  through  the  hilum  is  sometimes  present. 

Rings  are  indistinct. 

Polarization  Crosses  are  distinct  in  the  large  'grains.  A  play  of  colors 
is  obtained  with  the  selenite  plate. 


658  'COMMERCIAL   STARCHES. 

« 

BEAN-TREE  STARCH. 

The  seed  of  Castanospermum  Australe  Cunn.  are  used  to  some  extent 
in  New  South  Wales  for  the  production  of  starch. 

Microscopic  Characters.  The  following  description  is  on  Wiesner's 
authority : 

Aggregates.  Most  of  the  grains  are  in  aggregates,  the  number  of 
grains  thus  united  being  usually  2-5,  less  often  up  to  15. 

Forms.  Truncated  forms  from  aggregates  similar  to  those  of  cassava 
starch  predominate.  Round  grains  occur  rarely. 

Size.     The  individuals  are  2.7-17  /*,  but  most  of  them  are  5-12/1. 

The  Hilum  is  distinct. 

Rings  are  not  evident  even  after  treatment  with  chromic  acid. 

BANANA   STARCH. 

The  banana,  plantain,  and  other  fruits  of  the  genus  Musa  are  remark- 
able for  the  large  amount  of  starch  stored  up  in  the  green  pericarp.  This 
is  usually  regarded  as  reserve  material,  but  its  function  is  quite  different 
from  that  of  starch  stored  up  in  seeds,  as  it  is  not  utilized  by  the  young 
plantlet,  but  like  the  starch  of  most  green  fruits  is  gradually  converted 


FIG.  580.     Banana  Starch.     Xsoo.     (MOELLER.) 

into  sugars  during  ripening,  and  in  this  form  is  either  moved  back  into 
the  tree,  or  is  lost  by  fermentation  and  rotting.  Its  function  is  more 
nearly  that  of  transitory  starch. 

The  green  fruit  used  for  starch-making  is  grown  chiefly  in  tropical 
regions  of  America,  particularly  in  Guiana. 

According  to  Wiesner  only  the  flour  is  made  in  the  regions  of  produc- 
tion, the  starch  being  separated  from  the  flour  in  European  factories. 


BREAD-FRUIT  STARCH.     POTATO  STARCH.  659 


* 


The  Microscopic  Characters  (Fig.  580)  resemble  those  of  subterranean 
starches.  In  addition  to  the  starch  grains  Vogl  finds  raphides. 

Aggregates.  Tschirch  and  Oesterle  call  attention  to  the  sickle-shapeol 
forms,  consisting  of  two  large  grains  united  end  to  end. 

Forms.  Fusiform,  cigar-shaped,  ovoid,  rod-shaped,  and  other  elongated 
forms  are  very  striking. 

Size.     Most  of  the  grains  are  20-40  /*  long;  some  few  however  reach 

75  <"• 

The  Hilum  is  usually  situated  in  the  broader  end. 

The  Rings  are  very  distinct. 

Polarization  Crosses.  Distinct  crosses  are  seen  with  crossed  Nicols 
and  a  play  of  colors  with  the  selenite  plate. 

BREAD-FRUIT   STARCH. 

The  bread-fruit  tree  (Artocarpus  incisa  L.,  order  Artocarpeos)  yields 
a  fruit  from  which  starch  has  been  made  in  small  quantities  in  South 
America,  Reunion,  and  other  tropical  regions. 

The    Microscopic   Characters,    according  to  Wiesner,  are  as  follows: 

Aggregates.     All  of  the  grains  are  in  aggregates  of  from  2-20  members. 

Forms.     Polygonal  grains  predominate. 

Size.     2.5-13  /£,  usually  about  7  /£. 

Hilum  and  Rings  are  lacking. 

Polarization  Crosses,  although  never  sharp,  may  be  seen  with  high 
power. 

POTATO   STARCH. 

The  potato  (Solanum  tuberosum  L.)  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  sources 
of  commercial  starch,  although  the  product  is  not  much  used  as  food, 
but  is  chiefly  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  and  fabrics,  for  con- 
version into  dextrine  and  glucose,  and  for  other  technical  purposes.  It  is 
made  chiefly  on  the  Continent.  In  the  United  States  it  formerly  was  an 
important  product,  but  of  late  years  has  been  largely  replaced  by  maize 
starch.  The  process  of  manufacture  is  quite  simple.  The  thoroughly 
cleaned  tubers  are  ground  or  grated,  the  pulp  is  washed  on  sieves,  and 
the  starch  is  allowed  to  settle  from  the  milky  liquid. 

The  commercial  product  is  in  lumps,  irregular  prisms,  or  a  fine  powder. 
The  grains  are  so  large  as  to  be  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 


660  COMMERCIAL  STARCHES. 

• 

Microscopic  Characters  (Fig.  581).     This  starch  is  recognized  by  the 
large,  oyster-shell-like  grains,  each  with  the  hilum  in  the  small  end. 


FIG.  581.     Potato  Starch.     Xsoo.     (MOELLER.) 

Aggregates  are  rare  but  curious.  They  are  either  true  aggregates, 
usually  twins  or  triplets,  or  compound  grains  consisting  of  two  individuals, 
each  with  its  own  hilum  and  rings,  encircled  by  layers  common  to  both. 

Forms.  The  large  grains  remind  us  of  oyster-shells.  Egg-shaped, 
pear-shaped,  and  broadly  spindle-shaped  forms  are  common.  The 
small  grains  are  nearly  round. 

Size.  The  large  grains  range  up  to  100  jj.  in  .length,  most  of  them 
being  about  70  p..  The  small  grains  are  but  a  few  micromillimeters  in 
diameter. 

The  Hilum  is  in  the  small  end,  the  excentricity  being  J-J. 

The  Rings  are  very  distinct  and  are  evident  without  special  illumination. 

Polarization  Crosses  are  very  distinct.  With  the  selenite  plate  a  fine 
play  of  colors  is  obtained. 

flARANTA   STARCH    (WEST   INDIA   ARROWROOT). 

The  starch  obtained  from  the  rhizome  of  Maranta  arundinacea  L. 
(order  Marantacece)  and  other  species  of  the  same  genus  originally  had 
the  undisputed  claim  to  the  term  "  arrowroot,"  but  more  recently  other 
tropical  starches,  particularly  those  made  from  roots  and  rhizomes,  have 
been  designated  by  the  same  term.  Maranta  starch  is  now  variously 


MA  RANT  A  STARCH.  66 1 

known  in  commerce  as  West  India,  Jamaica,  Bermuda,  St.  Vincent,  and 
Natal  arrowroot. 

The  process  of  manufacture  is  essentially  the  same  as  is  used  for 
making  potato  starch,— in  fact  all  the  varieties  of  starch  made  from  tubers, 
rhizomes,  and  roots  are  obtained  in  much  the  same  manner. 

West  India  arrowroot  is  highly  prized  for  making  various  dietetic 
preparations. 

Microscopic  Characters  (Fig.  582).  The  grains  resemble  those  of 
potato  starch,  but  are  distinguished  by  their  somewhat  smaller  size,  the 


FIG.  582.     Maranta  Starch.     X3oo.     (MOELLER.) 

location  of  the  hilum  in  the  broad  end  and  the  wing-like  fissures  through 
the  hilum. 

Aggregates  are  rare  or  absent 

Forms.  Ovoid,  pear-shaped,  and  broadly  spindle-shaped  grains  pre- 
dominate. 

Size.  The  large  grains  are  mostly  30-50  fj.  long,  but  occasionally 
reach  75/1. 

The  Hilum  is  in  the  broad  end  and  is  usually  marked  by  fissures 
which  either  form  crosses  or  more  commonly  extend  in  two  curves  resem- 
bling the  wings  of  a  soaring  bird. 

The  Rings,  although  distinct,  are  not  so  prominent  as  in  potato  starch. 

The  Polarization  Crosses  and  the  play  of  colors  with  the  selenite  plate 
are  very  striking. 


662  COMMERCIAL  STARCHES. 


CURCUMA    STARCH    (EAST    INDIA   ARROWROOT). 

East  India,  curcuma,  or  Travencore  starch,  also  known  as  Tik,  Tikor, 
and  Tikur  flour,  is  obtained  from  the  rhizomes  of  several  species  of  Cur- 
cuma (order  Zingiberacece),  notably,  C.  angustijolia  Rxb.,  C.  Leucorrhiza 
Rxb.,  and  C.  rubescens  Rxb.  These  plants  are  closely  related  to  tur- 
meric (C.  longa),  and  together  with  ginger  belong  to  the  family  Zingi- 
beracece. 

Microscopic  Characters  (Fig.  583) .    The  grains  resemble  those  of  ginger, 


FIG.  583.     Curcuma  Starch.     Xsoo.     (MOELLER.) 

but  are  more  elongated.  Like  ginger  starch  they  have  a  curious  blunt 
point  in  which  is  located  the  hilum 

Aggregates  are  rare  or  absent. 

Forms.  The  grains  are  much  elongated,  the  length  being  usually 
over  twice  the  breadth.  The  hilum  end  is  distinguished  by  the  curious 
blunt  point. 

Size.  The  grains  from  C.  Leucorrhiza  sometimes  reach  145  /*,  but 
those  from  the  other  species  seldom  exceed  75  /*  and  are  mostly  under  60  p. 

The  Hilum  is  a  small  dot  in  the  point.      The  excentricity  is  J-yV- 

Polarization  Crosses  are  distinct,  and  a  beautiful  play  of  colors  is 
obtained  with  the  selenite  plate. 

CANNA    STARCH    (QUEENSLAND    ARROWROOT). 

Queensland,  New  South  Wales,  East  Indian,  or  torn  les  mois  arrow- 
root is  obtained  from  the  rhizomes  of  Canna  edulis  Edw.,  C.  coccinea 
Rose.,  C.  Indica  L.,  C.  Achiras  Gill  (order  MarantacecB),  and  other 


CANNA  STARCH      YAM  STARCH.  663 

species  growing  not  only  in  Australia  and  the  East  Indies  but  also  in 
Brazil,  Venezuela,  Reunion,  and  other  tropical  regions.  It  is  a  glistening 
white  powder  with  individual  grains  so  large  that  they  are  evident  to 
the  naked  eye. 

Microscopic  Characters  (Fig.  584).     This  starch,  because  of  the  large 


FIG.  584.     Canna  Starch.     X  300.     (MOELLER.) 

size  of  the  grains  and  the  distinctness  of  the  rings,  is  the  most  beautiful 
of  all  the  commercial  starches. 

Aggregates  are  wanting  or  rare. 

Forms.  The  grains  are  flattened,  in  outline  broadly  elliptical  or 
ovate,  with  a  more  or  less  pronounced  point  or  obtuse  angle  at  one  end. 

Size.  Most  of  the  grains  are  50  to  70  /JL  long,  but  some  are  over  100  //, 
reaching  in  exceptional  cases  135  /*. 

The  Hilum  is  in  the  end  with  the  obtuse  angle.     Excentricity  usually 

H- 

Rings  are  very  distinct. 

Polarization  Crosses  are  beautiful,  as  is  also  the  play  of  colors  with 
the  selenite  plate. 

YAM   STARCH    (GUIANA   ARROWROOT). 

Yam  starch,  or  Guiana  arrowroot,  is  made  in  the  tropics  from  the  tuber- 
ous roots  of  Dioscorea  alata  L.,  D.  sativa  L.,  D.  aculeata  L.,  D.  glabra 
Roxb.,  D.  Japonica  Thbg.,  D.  nummularia  Lam.,  D.  tomentosa  Koenig 
(order  Dioscoracea),  and  other  species  of  this  genus. 


664  COMMERCIAL  STARCHES. 

Microscopic  Characters  (Fig.  585).  This  starch  resembles  curcuma 
starch,  but  the  grains  are  not  as  distinctly  pointed.  The  product  is  quite 
variable,  owing  probably  to  the  different  species  from  which  it  is  derived. 


FIG.  585.     Yam  Starch.     Xsoo.     (MOELLER.) 

Forms.  The  grains  are  flattened  in  outline,  irregularly  ovate  or 
reniform.  At  the  broad  end  they  are  often  truncated;  at  the  narrow 
or  hilum  end,  rounded  or  very  indistinctly  pointed. 

Size.  Usually  the  grains  are  30-50  /JL  long,  but  occasionally  reach 
80  /*. 

The  Hilum  is  in  the  narrow  end.     Excentricity  ^-^. 

The  Rings  are  evident. 

Polarization  Crosses  are  distinct,  as  is  true  of  most  subterranean 
starches. 

CASSAVA   STARCH. 

The  thickened  roots  of  the  bitter  cassava  (Manihot  utilissima  Pohl, 
order  Euphorbiacea)  and  the  sweet  cassava  (M.  aipi  Pohl)  are  used  for 
the  production  not  only  of  flour,  tapioca,  and  cattle  foods,  but  also  of  a 
valuable  commercial  starch  known  as  cassava,  tapioca,  or  manioca  starch, 
and  as  Bahia,  Rio  or  Para  arrowroot.  The  starch  is  made  in  large 
quantities  in  Brazil,  and  to  some  extent  in  other  tropical  regions,  from 
the  root  of  the  bitter  cassava,  the  poisonous  prussic  acid  contained  in  the 
fresh  root  being  entirely  eliminated  by  the  processes  of  washing  and  dry- 
ing. This  product  is  sold  in  the  United  States  at  a  price  below  that  of 
maize  starch,  and  is  used  chiefly  in  the  arts.  In  Florida  considerable 
starch  is  made  from  the  sweet  cassava  for  use  as  a  size  for  cotton  fabrics. 


CASSAVA  STARCH.     SWEET-POTATO  STARCH.  665 

Microscopic  Characters  (Fig.  586).  This  starch  is  the  most  important 
of  the  commercial  varieties  with  rounded  grains  truncated  on  one  side. 
Although  in  tapioca  the  grains  are  more  or  less  distorted,  owing  to  the 
heating  during  manufacture,  they  often  retain  enough  of  their  characters 
to  permit  of  identification. 

Aggregates,  usually  of  2-3  grains,  less  often  of  4-8  grains,  may  be 
seen  in  great  numbers  in  sections  of  the  root.  In  the  manufacture  of 
commercial  starch  these  aggregates  are 
mostly  broken  up  into  their  constituent 
grains. 

Forms.  The  grains  are  usually  kettle- 
drum- or  sugar-loaf-shaped,  the  flattened 
surfaces  corresponding  to  the  surfaces  of 
contact  of  twin  aggregates.  Round  grains 
are  rare,  those  that  have  that  appearance 
being  merely  truncated  forms  resting  on 
the  flattened  side.  Grains  with  two 
flattened  surfaces  (from  triplets)  are  not  FlG- 586.  Cassava  starch, 

.\  (MOELLER.) 

uncommon,  but  with  more  than  two  sur- 
faces (from  aggregates  of  more  than  three  members)  are  rare. 

Size.  The  grains  occasionally  reach  35  //,  but  most  of  the  large 
grains  are  20  /*  or  less.  The  small  grains  are  less  than  15  //.  Grains 
50  fj.  in  diameter,  such  as  occur  in  sweet-potato  starch,  are  never 
present.  , 

The  Hilum  is  central,  and  is  usually  very  distinct.  Often  a  triangular 
enlargement  of  the  hilum  extends  to  the  flattened  surface.  Clefts  radia- 
ting from  the  hilum  are  sometimes  present. 

Rings  are  indistinct. 

Polarization  Crosses  are  very  striking. 

SWEET-POTATO   STARCH    (BRAZILIAN    ARROWROOT). 

Although  the  sweet-potato  plant  (Batatas  edulis  Chois.,  Ipomcea 
Batatas  Lam.,  order  Cowvolvulacea)  is  a  native  of  India,  it  is  grown 
chiefly  in  South  America,  Central  America,  and  the  Southern  States  of 
the  United  States.  The  tuberous  roots  contain  reserve  material  in  the 
form  of  both  starch  and  sugar.  Wiesner  states  that  sweet  potatoes  grown 
in  the  tropics  contain  10  per  cent  of  sugar  and  only  9  per  cent  of  starch, 
whereas  those  grown  in  subtropical  countries  contain  only  3-4  per  cent 


666  COMMERCIAL  STARCHES. 

of  sugar  and  as  high  as  15  per  cent  of  starch.  From  these  figures  it  is 
evident  that  the  roots  from  the  cooler  regions  are  best  adapted  for  the 
manufacture  of  starch. 

The  commercial  product  is  known  as  Brazilian  arrowroot,  or  sweet- 
potato  starch. 

Microscopic  Characters  (Fig.  587).  This  starch  resembles  that  of 
tapioca,  but  the  grains  are  larger  and  have  an  excentric  hilum. 


FIG.  587.     Sweet-potato  Starch.     Xsoo.     (MOELLER.) 


The  Aggregates  consist  mostly  of  twins  and  triplets,  although  some 
contain  as  high  as  six  individuals.  In  the  commercial  product  the  grains 
are  mostly  detached. 

Forms.  The  grains  have  one  or  two,  less  often  more,  flat  or  slightly 
concave  surfaces.  Bell-shaped  forms  are  particularly  abundant. 

Size.  Most  of  the  larger  grains  are  25-35  /"  m  diameter;  some, 
however,  reach  55  /*.  The  small  grains  are  chiefly  5-15  /*. 

The  Hilum  is  distinct,  and  is  frequently  marked  by  radiating  fissures. 
The  excentricity  is  usually  about  i,  but  sometimes  reaches  £. 

Rings  are  indistinct. 

Polarization  Crosses.     These  are  striking. 
\ 

ARUM   STARCH    (PORTLAND    ARROWROOT). 

Portland  arrowroot  and  some  other  varieties  of  commercial  starch 
of  local  importance  are  obtained  from  the  corms  of  various  species  of 
Arum  (order  Aracea),  of  which  A.  esculentum  L.,  A.  Italicum  Lam., 
and  A.  maculalum  L.  are  the  most  important. 

Microscopic  Characters.  Aggregates  occur  in  the  root,  but  not  in 
considerable  numbers  in  the  commercial  product. 


TACCA  STARCH.     SAGO.  667 

Forms.  The  grains  are  either  polygonal  or  rounded,  with  one  or 
more  facets. 

Size.  The  maximum  diameter  is  20  &  the  usual  diameter  less  than 
15  ;"• 

The  Hilum  is  central. 

Rings  are  indistinct. 


TACCA    STARCH    (TAHITI    ARROWROOT). 

This  starch,  also  known  as  Williams'  arrowroot  and  fecule  de  pia,  is 
made  from  the  roots  of  Tacca  pinnatifida  Forst.,  order  Taccacea,  a  plant 
grown  not  only  in  Tahiti  and  neighboring  islands,  but  also  in  Brazil 
and  India. 

Microscopic  Characters.  According  to  the  description  of  Tschirch 
and  Oesterle  the  grains  are  irregularly  egg-shaped,  with  excentric  hilum 
and  distinct  rings.  The  large  grains  are  usually  38-50  /*,  but  vary 
up  to  85  /£.  Wiesner  states  that  the  largest  grains  measure  45  //,  and 
further  notes  the  presence  of  polygonal  grains  of  somewhat  smaller  size 
from  aggregates. 

Further  observations  on  authentic  material  are  desirable. 

SAGO. 

Reserve  starch  is  deposited  in  large  amounts  during  certain  periods 
of  growth  in  the  pith  of  palms  and  cycads  for  use  during  the  fruiting 
season.  In  India  and  the  East  Indies  this  starch  is  extracted  in 
enormous  quantities  from  two  palms,  Metroxylon  Rumphii  Mart.  (Sagus 
Rumphii  Willd.)  and  M.  lave  Mart.  (5.  lewis  Rumph.),  and  in  consider- 
able quantities  from  M.  Sagus,  M.  Koenigii  Rumph.,  Arenga  saccharijera 
Labill,  Borassus  flabellijormis  L.,  Caryota  urens  L.,  and  other  allied  species. 

Sago  is  also  obtained  from  Cycas  revoluta  L.,  and  other  cycads. 

The  processes  of  manufacture  of  sago  starch  and  pearl  sago  are  much 
the  same  as  are  employed  in  making  starch  and  tapioca  from  the  cassava 
root.  The  pith  of  the  tree,  separated  from  the  hard  outer  layers,  is  reduced 
to  a  pulp,  and  the  starch  is  washed  out  on  sieves.  Soluble  impurities 
and  matters  in  suspension  are  removed  by  repeated  agitation  with  water 
and  decantation.  The  moist  starch  after  drying  yields  sago  flour  or 
sago  arrowroot. 

In  the  preparation  of  pearl  sago  the  moist  starch  is  converted  into 


668  COMMERCIAL  STARCHES. 

coarse  granules  by  rubbing  through  sieves,  and  these  granules  are  dried, 
rounded  by  agitation  in  bags,  and  finally  heated  until  the  starch  grains 
are  partially  destroyed.  The  granules  are  from  1-4  mm.  in  diameter, 
horny  in  texture,  and  semitransparent. 

Microscopic  Characters  (Fig.  588).     The  starch  is  highly  characteristic 


FIG.  588.     Sago.     X3oo.     (MOELLER.) 

in  microscopic  appearance,  even  in  pearl  sago  and  other  partially  cooked 
products. 

Aggregates  of  one  large  irregular  grain,  with  one  or  two  (rarely 
three  or  more)  small  grains,  make  up  the  larger  part  of  the  original 
material,  but  in  the  process  of  manufacture  many  of  these  aggregates  are 
broken  up. 

Forms.  The  large  detached  grains  from  the  aggregates  are  irregular 
in  shape,  and  show  the  surfaces  of  contact.  When  two  of  these  surfaces 
are  present  they  are  usually  at  different  corners  of  the  grain,  and  not  adja- 
cent, as  in  the  starch  grains  of  tapioca.  A  few  of  the  large  grains,  and 
many  of  the  small  grains,  do  not  bear,  evidences  of  being  members  of 
aggregates. 

The  small  grains  from  aggregates  are  plano-convex. 

Size.  The  large  grains  are  mostly  30-50  jj.  long,  but  sometimes 
range  up  to  80  /*;  the  small  grains  are  20  ,«  or  less  long. 

The  Hilum  has  usually  an  excentricity  of  £-• J-,  and  is  frequently 
crossed  by  fissures. 

The  Rings  and  Polarization  Crosses  are  distinct. 


SAGO.     MISCELLANEOUS  STARCHES. 


669 


In  pearl  sago  and  other  cooked  products  the  above  characters  are 
more  or  less  indistinct. 

As  formerly  prepared  sago  flour  usually  contained  considerable  amounts 
of  tissues  and  cell-contents,  especially  stone  cells,  hairs,  raphides,  and 


FIG.  589.     Erythronium  Starch.     (MoELLER.) 

crystal  clusters,  but  at  present  these  impurities  are  largely  removed  by 
the  improved  processes  of  manufacture. 


MISCELLANEOUS  STARCHES. 

The  starches  described  in  the  foregoing  sections  are  those  best  known 
in  commerce.  Others  of  local  importance  are  obtained  from  the  plants 
given  in  the  following  table: 


Amary'lidea: 

Alstroemeria 
Bomarea  sp. 
Pancratium 

Anacardiacece: 

Mangifera  I 

Aracea: 

Amorphophc 
Colocasia  an 
Dracontium  sp 
Typhonium  sp 

Araucariacea: 

Araucaria  sp 


Order  and  Species. 

pallida  Grah       

Part  Used. 

.....           Bulb 

Locality. 
Chili 

it 

« 

tc 

Italy 

'ndica  L   (rnanijro)       

Seed 

West  Indies 

Corm 

«      n 

'tiouoTum  Schott          

« 

Martinique 

it 

West  Indies 

bP  

SD.    . 

n 

«        n 

Brazil 


COMMERCIAL  STARCHES. 


Order  and  Species.  Part  Used.  Locality. 

CucurUtacea : 

Bryonia  epigcea  Rottl Root  East  Indies 

Sechium  edule  Sw '  *  West  Indies 

Sicyos  angulatus  D.C "  Reunion 

Graminea : 

Eleusine  Coracana  Gaertn Seed  West  Indies 

Hypoxidece : 

Hypoxis  aurea  Lam Bulb  East  Indies 

Leguminosa : 

Dolichos  bulbosus  L Root  Japan 

Parkia  Uglandulosa Pod  East  Indies 

Pueraria  Thunbergiana  Kunth Seed  Japan,  China 

Liliacea : 

Erythronium  Dens-canis  L Bulb  Japan 

Fritillaria  imperialis  L "  France 

Gloriosa  superba  L ' '  East  Indies 

Yucca  gloriosa  L Bulbous  root    Central  America 

Malvacea : 

Pachira  aquatica  Aubl Seed  Guiana 

Nymph&acece : 

Nelumbium  speciosum  Willd Root  China 


GENERAL    BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


1.  BELL:  The  Chemistry  of  Foods.     With  Microscopic  Illustrations.     London.    Part 

I,  1881;   Part  II,  1883. 

2.  BENECKE:    Anleitung  zur  mikroskopischen   Untersuchung   der   Kraftfuttermittel 

auf  Verfalschungen  und  Verunreinigungen.  Mit  44  in  den  Text  gedruckten 
Abbildungen.  Berlin,  1886. 

3.  BERG:  Anatomischer  Atlas  zur  Pharmazeutischen  Waarenkunde  in  Illustrationen 

auf  fiinfzig  in  Kreidemanier  lithograph ierten  Tafeln  nebst  erlauterndem 
Texte.  Berlin,  1865. 

4.  BERG  UND  SCHMIDT:  Darstellung  und  Beschreibung  samtlicher  in  der  Pharmac. 

Borussica  aufgefiihrten  officinellen  Gewachse.     Leipzig,  1859. 

5.  BLYTH:   Foods:  Their  Composition  and  Analysis.    A  Manual  for  the  Use  of 

Analytic  Chemists  and  Others.  With  an  Introductory  Essay  on  the  History 
of  Adulteration.  With  Numerous  Tables  and  Illustrations.  London.  2d 
Ed.  1882,  5th  Ed.  1903. 

6.  BOHMER:  Die  Kraftfuttermittel,  ihre  Rohstoffe,  Herstellung,  Zusammensetzung, 

Verdaulichkeit  und  Verwendung,  mit  besonderer  Berucksichtigung  der  Ver- 
falschungen und  der  mikroskopischen  Untersuchung.  Berlin,  1903. 

7.  Entwiirfe  fiir  den  Codex  alimentarius  Austriacus.     Ztschr.  Nahr.-Unters.  Hyg. 

1891  u.  ff. 

8.  COLLIN:    Guide  pratique  pour  la  determination  des  poudres  officinales.     Paris, 

1893. 

9.  COLLIN  ET  PERROT:  Les  residus  industriels  de  la  fabrication  des  huiles  et  essences, 

utilises  par  1'agriculture.     Paris,  1904. 

10.  DAMMER:    Illustriertes  Lexikon  der  Verfalschungen  und  Verunreinigungen  der 

Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel  u.s.w.     Unter  Mitwirkung  von    Fachgelehrten 

und  Sachverstandigen  herausgegeben.     Leipzig.    I.    Band,  1885;    II.  Band, 

mit  5  Farbendrucktafeln  und  734  in  den  Text  gedruckten  Abbildungen,  1887. 

BOHMER  :    Oelkuchen. 

HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Kaffee;  Thee;  Safran;  Pfeffergewiirze;  Muskatnuss; 

Zimmt. 

HILGER:  Gewiirznelken. 

MEYER,  ARTHUR:  Ingwer;    Senf;  Kardamomen. 
WEIGMANN:   Kakao. 
WITTMACK:  Brot;  Mehle;  Starke. 

671 


672  GENERAL   BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

u.  FLUCKIGER:    Pharmakognosie  des  Pflanzenreiches.     Berlin,    1876.     Zweite  Aufl., 
1881;  Dritte  Aufl.,  1891. 

12.  GEISSLER-MOELLER  :    Real-Encyclopadie   der  gesammten   Pharmacie.      Wien,   i. 

Aufl.  1886-91;  2.  Aufl.  (Moeller-Thoms),  1904  u.  ff. 

13.  GIRARD  ET  DUPRE  :   Analyse  des  matieres  alimentaires  et  recherche  de  leurs  falsi- 

fications.    Paris,  1894. 

14.  GREENISH:    The  Microscopical  Examination  of  Foods  and  Drugs.    A  Practical 

Introduction  of  the  Methods  Adopted  in  the  Microscopical  Examination  of 
Foods  and  Drugs,  in  the  Entire,  Crushed  and  Powdered  States.  London,  1903. 

15.  GREENISH  AND  COLLIN:  An  Anatomical  Atlas  of  Vegetable  Powders.     Designed 

as  an  Aid  to  the  Microscopic  Analysis  of  Powdered  Foods  and  Drugs.  London, 
1904. 

16.  HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:    Die  Nahrungs-  und   Genussmittel  aus  dem  Pflanzenreiche. 

Nach  den  Grundsatzen  der  wissenschaftlichen  Waarenkunde  fur  die  Praxis 
und  zum  Studium.  Mit  100  in  den  Text  eingedruckten  meist  anatomischen 
Holzschnitten.  Kassel,  1884. 

17.  HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Lehrbuch  der  technischen  Mikroskopie.    Mit  256  in  den  Text 

Gedruckten  Abbildungen. '   Stuttgart,  1901. 

18.  HARZ:     Landwirthschaftliche    Samenkunde.     Handbuch    fiir    Botaniker,    Land- 

wirthe,  Gartner,  Droguisten,  Hygieniker.  Mit  201  in  den  Text  gedruckten 
Originalholzschnitten.  2  Bander.  Berlin,  1885. 

19.  HASSALL:  Food:  Its  Adulterations,  and  the  Methods  for  Their  Detection.     Illus- 

trated by  upwards  of  200  Wood  Engravings.     London,  1876. 

20.  JELLIFFE:   An  Introduction  to  Pharmakognosy.     Philadelphia,  1904. 

21.  KLENKE:  Die  Verfalschungen  der  Nahrungsmittel  und  Getranke,  etc.     Leipzig, 

1858. 

22    KOCH:  Die  mikroskopische  Analyse  der  Drogenpulver.     Ein  Atlas  fur  Apotheker, 
Drogisten  und  Studierende  der  Pharmazie.     Berlin,  1900  u.  ff. 

23.  KONIG:   Die  Untersuchung  landwirtschaftlich   und  gewerblich  wichtiger  Stoffe. 

Parktisches  Handbuch.  Mit  202  Textabbildungen  und  einer  farbigen  Tafel. 
Berlin,  1891.  Zweite,  neubearbeitete  Auflage,  mit  248  Textabbildungen  und 
einer  farbigen  Tafel,  1898. 

BOHMER:    Mikroskopische  Untersuchung  der  Hulsenfriichte,  Oelsamen 
und  Unkrautsamen. 

24.  KRAEMER:   A  Course  in  Botany  and  Pharmacognosy.     Philadelphia,  1902. 

25.  LEACH:   Food  Inspection  and  Analysis.     For  the  Use  of  Public  Analysts,  Health 

Officers,  Sanitary  Chemists  and  Food  Economists.     New  York,  1904. 

26.  MACE:  Les  substances  alimentaires  etudiees  au  microscope  surtout  au  point  de 

vue  de  leurs  alterations  et  de  leurs  falsifications.  Avec  vingt-quatre  planches 
coloriees  dont  huit  reproduites  d'apres  les  etudes  sur  le  vin  de  M.  L.  Pasteur 
et  408  figures  dans  le  texte.  Paris,  1891. 

27.  MEYER,  ARTHUR:    Wissenschaftliche  Drogenkunde.    Ein  illustriertes  Lehrbuch 

der  Pharmakognosie  und  eine  wissenschaftliche  Anleitung  zur  eingehenden 
botanischen  Untersuchung  pflanzlicher  Drogen  fiir  Apotheker.  Erster  Teil 
mit  269  Abbildungen.  Berlin,  1891.  Zweiter  Teil  (Schluss  des  Werkes) 
mit  387  Abbildungen.  Berlin,  1892. 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY.  673 

28.  MEYER,  ARTHUR:  Die  Grimdlagen  und  die  Methoden  fur  die  mikroskopische  Unter- 

suchung  von  Pflanzenpulvern.  Eine  Einfiihrung  in  die  wissenschaftlichen 
Methoden  der  mikroskopischen  Untersuchung  von  Gewiirzen,  pflanzlichen 
Arzneimitteln,  Nahrungsmitteln,  Futte-rmitteln,  Papieren,  Geweben  u.s.w. 
Zum  Gebrauche  in  den  Laboratorien  der  Hochschulen  und  zum  Selbstunter- 
richte.  Fiir  Nahrungsmittelchemiker,  Apotheker,  Techniker  u.s.w.  Mit 
8  Tafeln  und  18  Figuren  im  Texte.  Jena,  1901. 

29.  MOELLER:  Mikroskopie  der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel  aus  dem  Pflanzenreiche. 

Mit  308  vom  Verfasser  gezeichneten  Figuren  in  Holzschnitt.     Berlin,  1886. 

30.  MOELLER:   Lehrbuch  der  Pharmakognosie.     Mit  237  Abbildungen.     Wien,  1889. 

31.  MOELLER:  Pharmakognostischer  Atlas.     Mikroskopische  Darstellung  und  Beschrei- 

bung  der  in  Pulverform  gebrauchlichen  Drogen.  Mit  no  Tafeln  in  Licht- 
druck  nach  Zeichnungen  des  Verfassers.  Berlin,  1892. 

32.  MOELLER:  Leitfaden  zu  mikroskopisch-pharmakognostischen  Uebungen  fiir  Studie- 

rende  und  zum  Selbstunterricht.  Mit  409,  zumeist  vom  Verfasser  gezeichne- 
ten Figuren  im  Texte.  Wien,  1901. 

33.  MOLISCH:  Grundriss  einer  Histochemie  der  pflanzlichen  Genussmittel.     Jena,  1892. 

34.  PLANCHON  ET  COLLIN:  Les  drogues  simples  d'origine  vegetale.     Paris.     T.  I.  1895; 

T.  II.  1896. 

35.  ROSEN:  Anatomische  Wandtafeln  der  vegetabilischen  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel. 

Breslau,   1897. 

36.  RUPP:    Die  Untersuchung  von  Nahrungsmitteln,  Genussmitteln  und  Gebrauchs- 

gegenstanden.  Praktisches  Handbuch  fiir  Chemiker,  Medicinal  beam  te, 
Pharmazeuten,  Verwaltungs-  und  Justizbehorden  u.s.w.  Mit  115  in  den  Text 
gedruckten  Abbildungen.  Heidelberg,  1894. 

37.  SCHIMPER:     Anleitung  zur  mikroskopischen   Untersuchung  der    Nahrungs    und 

Genussmittel.  Jena.  Erste  Aufl.  mit  79  Holzschnitten,  1886.  Zweite 
umgearbeitete  Aufl.  mit  134  Abbildungen,  1900. 

38.  TICHOMIROW:   Lehrbuch  der  Pharmakognosie.     Moscow,  1900. 

39.  TSCHIRCH:   Angewandte   Pflanzenanatomie.     Ein   Handbuch  zum   Studium   des 

anatomischen  Baues  der  in  der  Pharmacie,  den  Gewerben,  der  Landwirth- 
schaft  und  dem  Haushalte  benutzten  pflanzlichen  Rohstoffe.  Erster  Band. 
Allgemeiner  Theil :  Grundriss  der  Anatomic.  Mit  614  in  den  Text  gedruckten 
Holzschnitten.  Wien  und  Leipzig,  1889. 

40.  TSCHIRCH  u.  OESTERLE:   Anatomischer  Atlas  der  Pharmakognosie  und  Nahrungs- 

mittelkunde.  Ca.  2000  Originalzeichnungen  auf  81  Tafeln  mit  begleitendem 
Text.  Leipzig,  1900. 

41.  Vereinbarungen  zur  einheitlichen  Untersuchung  und  Beurtheilung  von  Nahrungs- 

und  Genussmitteln  sowie  Gebrauchsgegenstanden  fur  das  Deutsche  Reich. 
Berlin,  1897.  Heft  II,  1899;  Heft  III,  1902. 

42.  VILLIERS  ET  COLLIN:  Traite  des  alterations  et  falsifications  des  substances  alimen- 

taires.     Avec  633  figures  dans  le  texte.     Paris,  1900. 

43.  VOGL:    Nahrungs-  und    Genussmittel   aus   dem   Pflanzenreiche.     Anleitung  zum 

richtigen  Erkennen  und  Prufen  der  wichtigsten  im  Handel  vorkommenden 
Nahrungsmittel,  Genussmittel  und  Gewurze  mit  Hilfe  des  Mikroskops.  Mit 
116  feinen  Holzschnittbildern.  Wien,  1872. 


674  GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

44.  VOGL:  Arzneikorper  aus  den  drei  Naturreichen  in  pharmakognostischer  Hinsicht. 

Commentar  zur  osterr.  Pharmacopoe.  Wien.  Dritte  Aufl.  1880;  siebente 
Aufl.  1892. 

45.  VOGL  :  Die  wichtigsten  vegetabilischen  Nahnmgs-  und  Genussmittel  mit  besonderer 

Berucksichtigung  der  mikroskopischen  Untersuchung  auf  ihre  Echtheit, 
ihre  Verunreinigungen  und  Verfalschungen.  Mit  271  Holzschnitten. 
Berlin  und  Wien,  1889. 

46.  WIGAND:   Lehrbuch  der  Pharmakognosie.     Berlin,  1863;    vierte  Aufl.  1887. 

47.  WIESNER:    Einleitung  in   die  technische  Mikroskopie  nebst  mikroskopisch-tech- 

nischen  Untersuchungen.     Wien,  1867. 

48.  WIESNER:  Die  Rohstoffe  des  Pflanzenreiches.    Versuch  einer  technischen  Rohstoff- 

lehre  des  Pflanzenreiches.  Leipzig,  1873.  Zweite  ganzlich  umgearbeit. 
und  erweit.  Aufl.  I.  Bd.  mit  153  Textfiguren,  1900;  II.  Bd.  mit  297  Text- 
figuren,  1903. 

HANAUSEK,  T.  F.:  Samen  und  Fruchte. 

HOHNEL:  Rinden. 

KRASSER:   Blatter  und  Krauter. 

LINSBATJER:  Bliithen  und  Bliithentheile. 

VOGL:  Unterirdische  Pflanzentheile. 

WIESNER:  Starke. 

49.  WILEY  ET  AL.  :  Foods  and  Food  Adulterants.     CJ.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Division  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  No.  13,  Washington,  1887. 


GLOSSARY. 


Accompanying  Cells.     The  cells  adjoining  the  guard-cells  of  a  stoma. 

Accumbent.     Applied  to  seeds  with  radicle  against  the  edges  of  the  cotyledons  (p.  173). 

Achene.     A  small  dry,  indehiscent,  one-seeded  carpal  with  a  leathery  pericarp. 

Adnate.     Grown  to  another  part. 

Aerial  Stem.  A  stem  formed  above  ground  as  distinguished  from  rhizomes  and  other 
subterranean  stems  (p.  39). 

Aggregate.     Used  of  starch  grains  united  to  form  a  body  of  definite  shape. 

Aggregate  Fruit.  A  fruit  formed  by  the  ripening  of  a  flower  with  several  ovaries 
(P-  33;  Fi§-  256). 

Aleurone  Cells,  or  Aleurone  Layer.  Strictly,  cells  of  the  perisperm  or  embryo,  con- 
taining aleurone  grains  and  fat,  but  no  starch.  The  so-called  aleurone  or  gluten 
cells  of  the  cereals  contain  fat  in  an  amorphous  proteid  network,  but  neither  aleu- 
rone grains  nor  gluten  (p.  62;  Figs.  33  and  38). 

Aleurone  Grains.  Proteid  bodies  of  various  forms  occurring  chiefly  in  seeds  (p.  24; 
Fig-  7)- 

Alkaloids.  A  group  of  nitrogenous  substances  with  marked  toxic  or  stimulating  prop- 
erties (p.  25). 

Amphitropous.     See  Hemitropous. 

Amylodextrin.     A  carbohydrate  intermediate  between  dextrin  and  starch. 

Amylodextrin  Starch  (p.  534). 

Anastomosis.     The  joining  of  veins  by  cross-veins,  forming  a  network. 

Anatropous.  Inverted;  applied  to  ovules  and  seeds  with  foramen  or  micropyle  at  the 
hilum,  connected  by  the  raphe  with  the  chalaza  at  the  opposite  end  (Fig.  19). 

Angiosperms,  or  Angiospermous  Plants.     Phenogams  with  ovules  inclosed  in  an  ovary. 

Annular  Vessels.     Vessels  with  thickened  rings  (Fig.  25). 

Anther.     The  body  at  the  extremity  of  the  stamen,  containing  the  pollen  grains  (p.  31). 

Apex.     The  end  farthest  from  the  point  of  attachment  or  base  of  an  organ. 

Arillode.     An  appendage  of  a  seed  growing  out  of  the  micropyle. 

Arillus,  or  Seed  Mantle.     An  appendage  of  a  seed  growing  out  of  the  hilum  (Fig.  448). 

Ascus,  pi.  Asci.     A  sac  producing  spores  within  (p.  420;  Fig.  325). 

Assimilation.     See  Photosynthesis.  . » 

Assimilation  Starch.     The  starch  formed  in  chlorophyl  grains. 

Astroscelereid.     Star-shaped  stone-cell. 

675 


676  GLOSSARY. 

Awn.     A  bristle  borne  on  the  glume  or  palet  of  a  grass. 

Axil.     The  upper  angle  between  a  leaf  and  a  stem. 

Bark.     All  the  tissues  of  perennial    stems   outside    of    the    cambium    layer    (p.    40; 

Fig.  24). 

Basidium,  pi.  Basidia.     A  sac  producing  spores  on  its  surface  (p.  420). 
Bast.     See  Phloem. 

Bast  Fibers.     Greatly  elongated,  pointed  cells  with  thick  porous  walls  (p.  21;  Fig.  5). 
Beaker  Cells.     Cells  with  thickened  radial  and  inner  walls  (p.  173;   Fig.  144). 
Bracts.    The  small  leaves  or  scales  subtending  a  flower  or  its  pedicel. 
Bulb.     A  leaf  bud  (usually  subterranean)  surrounded  by  thickened  scales. 
Bundle  Sheath.     A  group  of  bast  fibers  surrounding  or  adjoining  a  bundle  (Figs.  231 

and  232). 

Calyx.     The  outer  floral  envelope,  consisting  of  sepals. 
Cambiform  Cells.     Elongated  elements  of  the  phloem  with  non-porous  cross  partitions 

(Fig.  6). 
Cambium  Layer.     The  active  tissue  of  exogenous  stems  and  roots,  forming  phloem  on 

the  outside  and  xylem  on  the  inside  (p.  39). 
Campylotropous.      Applied  to  ovules  and  seeds  with  the  hilum  and  chalaza  at  the 

point  of  attachment,  but  with  the  body  so  curved  as  to  bring  the  foramen  or  micro- 

pyle  also  near  this  point. 

Cane  Sugar,  or  Sucrose.     Common  sugar,  C^H^Ou. 
Carpel.     A  simple  pistil  or  an  element  of  a  compound  pistil. 
Carpophore.     The  prolongation  of  the  pedicel  between  the  carpels  of  umbelliferous 

plants,  from  which  the  carpels  are  suspended  (p.  549;   Fig.  480). 
Caruncle.     A  wart-like  excrescence  formed  on  the  micropyle  of  a  seed. 
Caryopsis.     A  dry,  one-seeded,  indehiscent  fruit  in  which  the  seed  adheres  to   the  thin 

pericarp  throughout,  as  in  wheat  and  other  grains. 
Cell  Nucleus.     A  globular  protoplasmic  body  in  the  cell,  instrumental  in  cell  division 

(P.  33)- 

Cellulose.     The  carbohydrate  forming  the  larger  part  of  the  cell-walls  of  young  tissues. 

Chaff.     The  glumes  and  palets  of  grasses. 

Chalaza.     The  part  of  an  ovule  or  seed  where  the  integuments  and  nucellus  unite 

(P-  355   FiS-  I9)- 
Chartaceous.     Papery. 
Chlorophyl  Grains.     See  Chloroplasts. 
Chloroplasts,    Chloroplastids,   or   Chlorophyl   Grains.      The    characteristic     bodies   of 

green  tissues,  essential  for  photosynthesis  (p.  29). 
Chromatophores.     See  Plastids. 
Chromoplasts,  or  Chromoplastids.     Orange  or  yellow  plastids,  to  which  certain  organs 

owe  their  color  (p.  24). 
Cleft.     With  narrow  or  acute  divisions  or  sinuses  extending  half  way  or  more  to  the 

midrib  or  base. 
Collateral  Fibro-vascular  Bundle.     With  phloem  and  xylem  in  the  same  radial  plane 

(P-  39)- 
Collenchyma.      A   tissue    with   conspicuous    thickenings   at   the   ceil  angles   (p.    20; 

Fig.  3)- 


GLOSSARY.  677 

Column  Cells.      The    subepidermal    cells  of    the    spermoderm  of    legumes,    usually 

I-shaped  or  hour-glass-shaped  (p.  239;    Fig.  189). 
Commissure.     The  surfaces  of  contact  of  the  two  fruits  (merciarps)  of  the  Umbellijerce 

(P-  549)- 
Compound  or  Multiple  Fruit.      A  fruit  consisting  of    the  ripened  ovaries  of  several 

flowers. 

Compressed  Cells.     See  Obliterated  Cells. 
Concentric  Fibro-vascular  Bundle.      With  xylem  encircling  the  phloem  or  vice  versa 

(p.  44). 
Conduplicate.     Applied  to  seeds  with  cotyledons  folded  lengthwise  about  the  radicle. 

(P-  i73)- 

Conidium.     See  Gonidium. 

Coniferous  Plants,  or  Conifers.     Gymnosperms  bearing  cones. 
Convolute.     Rolled  up  longitudinally  from  one  margin. 
Coriaceous.     Leather)'. 
Cork.      A  protective  tissue  formed  beneath  the  epidermis,  especially  of  stems  (p.  22; 

Fig.  512). 
Corm.     A  short  and  thick,  fleshy,  subterranean  stem,  often  broader  than  high,  with 

roots  on  the  lower  side. 

Corolla.     The  inner  floral  envelope,  consisting  of  petals. 
Cortex.     The  zone  between  the  epidermis  and  phloem  of  annual  stems,  and  between 

the  cork  and  phloem  of  perennial  stems  (pp.  39,  40). 
Cotyledons.     The  seed-leaves  of  the  embryo. 
Crenate.     With  margin  having  rounded  teeth. 
Cross  Cells.     Transversely  elongated  cells  (p.  62;    Fig.  36). 
Cryptogamous    Plants,    or   Cryptogams.        The    lower    plants    without    stamens    and 

pistils. 

Crystalloids.     Proteid  crystals  occurring  in  aleurone  grains  (p.  24). 
Crystal  Rosettes,  or  Crystal  Clusters.      Aggregates  of  crystals,  particularly  of  calcium 

oxalate  (p.  26;  Fig.  8). 

Crystal  Sand.     Deposits  of  minute  crystals  (p.  26;  Fig.  10). 
Cupule.     The  cup  (involucre)  of  the  acorn  and  similar  fruits  (p.  299). 
Cuticle.     The  non-cellular  membrane  covering  the  epidermis  (p.  21). 
Cutin.     The  chief  constituent  of  the  cuticle. 

Cystolith.     A  concretion  of  calcium  carbonate  occurring  in  special  cells  (Fig.  169). 
Cytoplasm.     The  semi-fluid  portion  of  the  protoplasm  (p.  23). 
Dehiscent.     Opening  by  valves,  pores,  or  along  regular  lines. 
Dentate.     With  margin  having  teeth  pointing  outwards. 

Dextrin.     A  water-soluble  carbohydrate  intermediate  between  dextrose  and  starch. 
Dextrose,  or  Grape  Sugar.     A  sugar  with  the  formula  C6Hi2O6,  which  turns  the  plane 

of  polarized  light  to  the  right. 
Dicotyledonous  Plants,  or  Dicotyledons.     Plants  with  embryo  having  two  cotyledons. 

See  Exogenous  Plants. 

Dioecious.     With  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  on  different  plants. 
Divided.     With  divisions  extending  quite  to  the  midrib  or  base. 
Dorsal  Side.     The  outer  side  or  back. 


6  y  8  GLOSSARY. 

Drupe,  or  Stone  Fruit.     A  fruit  with  a  fleshy  mesocarp  and  a  hard  endocarp  or  stone, 

such  as  the  peach. 
Drupelet.     A  small  drupe. 

Ellipsoidal.     Applied  to  a  solid  elliptical  in  longitudinal  section. 
Elliptical.     With  the  outline  of  an  ellipse. 
Emergence.     A  multicellular  excrescence  or  hair  with  tissues  derived  from  both  the 

epidermal  and  hypodermal  layers. 
Embryo.     The  undeveloped  plantlet  in  a  seed  (p.  38). 

Embryo  Sac.     The  sac  in  the  nucellus  in  which  fertilization  is  effected  (p.  35;  F'g.  19). 
Empty  Glumes.     The  two  chaffy  envelopes  subtending  a  spikelet  (Fig.  66). 
Endocarp.     The  innermost  layer  of  a  pericarp  (p.  35;   Figs.  17  and  18). 
Endodermis.     The  layer  encircling  the  bundle  zone  (pp.  39,  45). 
Endogenous  Plants,  or  Endogens.     Plants  with  bundles  irregularly  distributed  through 

a  parenchymatous  tissue.     The  seeds  have  monocotyledonous  embryos   and    the 

leaves  are  usually  parallel- veined. 
Endosperm.     The  albumen  of  the  seed  which,  like  the  embryo,  is  developed  in  the 

embryo  sac  (p.  35). 
Entire.     Unbroken  by  divisions. 

Epicarp.     The  outer  epidermis  of  a  fruit  (p.  35;  Figs.  17  and  18). 
Epidermis.     The  outermost  or  innermost  cell  layer  of  an  organ.     See  Epicarp. 
Essential  or  Volatile  Oils.     Alcohol  soluble  mixtures  of  turpenes  with  other  substances 

(p.  26). 
Exogenous  Plants,  or  Exogens.     Plants  with  fibro-vascular  bundles  in  a  ring,  forming 

new  wood  on  the  outside  of  the  old.     The  seeds  have  dicotyledonous  or  poly- 

cotyledonous  embryos  and  the  leaves  are  usually  netted- veined. 
Fats  and  Oils.     Compounds  of  fatty  acids  with  glycerine  (p.  26). 
Fibro-vascular  Bundle,  or  Vascular  Bundle.     A  group  of  conducting  elements  con- 
sisting of  xylem  and  phloem,  with  often  a  sheath  of  bast  fibers  (pp.  22,  39-45; 

Figs.  6,  231,  and  232). 

Filament.     The  slender  stalk  of  the  stamen  bearing  the  anther. 
Flowering   Glume.     The  outer  (lower)  of  the  two  envelopes  subtending  each  flower 

of  a  spikelet  of  a  grass  (p.  60;   Fig.  32). 
Foramen.     The  opening  at  one  end  of  an  ovule  through  which  the  pollen  tubes  enter 

(p.  34;  Fig.  19). 

Fruit.     The  matured  ovary  and  all  it  contains  or  that  is  connected  with  it  (p.  33). 
Fruit  Coat.     See  Pericarp. 
Fugaceous.     Lasting  but  a  short  time. 
Funiculus.     The  stem  of  an  ovule. 
Geniculate.     Bent  abruptly. 

Glabrous.     Smooth,  i.e.,  free  from  hairs  or  bristles. 
Gland.     A  modified  cell  secreting  different  substances.     Loosely  used  for  any  slight 

swelling. 

Glandular  Hairs.     See  Hairs. 
Glaucous.     Covered  with  a  bloom. 

Globoids.     Globular  bodies  occurring  in  aleurone  grains  (p.  25). 
Glucosides.     Compounds  of  sugars  with  organic  acids. 


GLOSSARY.  679 

Gluten  Cells      See  Aleurone  Cells. 

Gonidium,  pi.  Gonidia.  Same  as  Conidium,  pi.  Conidia.  An  asexual  reproductive 
cell  (p.  164). 

Ground  Substance.  The  material  in  which  are  embedded  specially  differentiated 
bodies,  as  the  ground  substance  of  aleurone  grains  (p.  24). 

Ground  Tissue.     A  tissue,  usually  parenchyma,  in  which  others  are  embedded. 

Guard  Cells.     The  two  crescent-shaped  cells  surrounding  a  stoma  (p.  29;  Figs,  n  and  12). 

Gums.     Mucilaginous  substances  soluble  in  water  but  precipitated  by  alcohol. 

Gymnospermous  Plants,  or  Gymnosperms.     Phenogams  having  naked  ovules. 

Hadrome.     See  Phloem. 

Hairs,  or  Trichomes.     Unicellular  or  multicellular  outgrowths  of  the  epidermis  (p.  29). 

Hairs,  Glandular.     Hairs  with  a  secretion  chamber  at  the  apex  (Figs,  n  and  425). 

Hastate.     Halbert-shaped;  with  lobes  at  the  base  turned  outwards. 

Hemitropous,  or  Amphitropous.  Applied  to  ovules  or  seeds  with  hilum  midway  be- 
tween the  chalaza  and  foramen  (micropyle). 

Hermaphrodite,     With  stamens  and  pistils  in  the  same  flower. 

Hilum,  pi.  Hilums  or  Hila.  (i)  The  scar  or  place  of  attachment  of  an  ovule  or  seed 
to  its  funiculus  or  stalk;  (2)  the  organic  center  of  a  starch  grain  (p.  647). 

Hirsute.     Rough  hairy. 

Hour-glass  Cells.     See  Column  Cells. 

Hyaline.     Transparent  or  translucent. 

Hymenium.     An  aggregation  of  reproductive  cells  in  a  fungus  (p.  420). 

Hypha,  pi.  Hyphse.     A  vegetative  thread  of  a  fungus. 

Hypoderm.  The  layer  or  layers  of  cells  immediately  underlying  the  epidermis;  here, 
used  chiefly  for  the  hypoderm  of  fruits. 

I  Cells.     See  Column  Cells. 

Idioblast.  A  cell  which  differs  greatly,  in  form,  size,  or  contents,  from  the  tissue  in 
which  it  occurs. 

Imbricated.     Overlapping  one  another. 

Incumbent.     Applied  to  seeds  with  radicle  against  the  back  of  one  of  the  cotyledons 

(P-  i73)- 

Indehiscent.     Not  opening  by  valves,  pores,  or  along  regular  lines. 

Inferior.  Growing  below  some  other  organ.  An  inferior  calyx  is  free  from  the  ovary. 
An  inferior  ovary  is  united  with  the  calyx  tube. 

Inflorescence.     The  arrangement  of  flowers  on  the  stem,  or  a   flower  cluster  itself. 

Intercellular  Spaces.     Cavities  between  cells  (Fig.  i). 

Inulin.  A  water-soluble  carbohydrate  found  in  various  roots.  It  forms  sphaero-crystals 
in  alcohol. 

Invert  Sugar.  A  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  dextrose  and  levulose  obtained  by  the  inver- 
sion of  cane  sugar. 

Involucre.  A  circle  of  bracts  surrounding  the  base  of  a  compound  flower  or  a  cluster 
of  flowers. 

Involute.     Rolled  longitudinally  on  the  upper  side  from  both  margins. 

Isodiametric.     Having  approximately  equal  dimensions. 

Lanceolate.  Much  longer  than  broad,  and  tapering  at  the  apex,  or  at  both  the  apex 
and  the  base. 


68o  GLOSSARY. 

Latex  Tubes.     Branching  tubes  containing  a  milky  secretion  (Figs.  341  and  343). 

Leptome.     See  Phloem. 

Leucoplasts,   or   Leucoplastids.     Colorless   plastids  instrumental   in  the    formation   of 

starch  (p.  644;  Fig.  570). 
Levulose,  or  Fruit  Sugar.     A  sugar  with  the  formula  C6Hi2O6,  which  turns  the  plane 

of  polarized  light  to  the  left. 
Light    Line.     A  bright  line  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  cell  seen  in  the  palisade 

cells  of  legumes  and  other  seeds  (p.  234;  Fig.  200). 

Lignin.     The  characteristic  constituent  of  woody  or  sclerenchymatized  tissues. 
Lobed.     With  rounded  divisions  or  sinuses  extending  not  more  than  half  way  to   the 

midrib  or  base. 

Locules.     The  cavities  or  macroscopic  cells  of  a  fruit  or  other  organ. 
Lodicules.     The  two  very  small  hyaline  scales  between  the  base  of  a  flower  and  its 

glume  (p.  61). 

Lumen,  pi.  Lumens  or  Lumina.     The  cavity  enclosed  by  the  walls  of  a  cell. 
Malpighian  Cells.     The  palisade  epidermis  of  leguminous  seegls  (p.  233;  Fig.  200). 
Mericarp.     One  carpel  of  the  fruit  of  an  umbelliferous  plant  (p.  549). 
Meristem.     A  tissue,  usually  in  a  zone,  forming  other  tissues  by  cell  division. 
Mesocarp.     The  middle  layers  of  a  pericarp  (p.  35) . 
Mesophyl.     The  middle  layers  of  a  leaf  (p.  29;    Fig.  n). 

Micropyle.     The  opening  of  a  seed  corresponding  to  the  foramen  of  the  ovule  (Fig.  19). 
Middle  Lamella.     The  primary  or  middle  layer  between  cells. 
Midrib.     The  central  nerve  of  a  leaf. 
Mitscherlichian  Bodies.     Multicellular  hairs  occurring  on  the  epidermis  of  the  embryo 

of  the  cocoa  bean  (p.  446;  Fig.  348). 
Monocotyledonous  Plants,   or  Monocotyledons.      Plants   with    embryos   having     one 

cotyledon.     See  Endogenous  Plants. 

Monoecious.     With  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  on  the  same  plant. 
Morphology.     The  study  of  vegetable  parts  with  reference  to  their  form,  origin,  and 

metamorphoses. 

Mycelium,  pi.  Mycelia.     The  vegetative  portion  of  a  fungus  consisting  of  hyphas. 
Naked  Fruit.     A  fruit  readily  separating  from  its  envelopes. 
Nucellus.     The  body  of  the  ovule  (p.  35;   Fig.  19). 
Nucleus.     See  Cell  Nucleus. 
Nutritive  Layer.     A  layer  of  the  spermoderm,  several  cells  thick,  containing  starch  or 

other  contents  which  are  translocated  to  other  parts  during  ripening. 
Obliterated  Cells.     Compressed  cells  with  little  or  no  evidence  of  their  cellular  structure. 
Obovate.     With  the  outline  of  a  longitudinal  section  of  a  hen's  egg;  attachment  at  the 

smaller  end. 

Obovoid.     Egg-shaped  with  attachment  at  the  smaller  end;   solid  obovate. 
Oil  Cells.     Cells  secreting  fatty  or  essential  oil. 
Oil    Ducts.      Ducts    containing   essential    oil,    as    the    vittae    of   umbelliferous    fruits 

(P-  549)- 
Orthotropous.     Applied  to  ovules  and  seeds  with  both  hilum  and  chalaza  at  the  point 

of  attachment,  and  the  foramen  or  micropyle  at- the  opposite  end. 
Oval.     Broadly  elliptical. 


GLOSSARY.  68 1 

Ovary.      The  body  of   the  pistil  in  which  are  contained  the  ovules  and  which  later 

develops  into  the  fruit  (Fig.  19). 
Ovate.     With  the  outline  of  a  longitudinal  section  of  a  hen's  egg;  attachment  at  the 

larger  end. 

Ovoid.     Egg-shaped  with  attachment  at  the  larger  end;   solid  ovate. 
Ovule.     A  body  contained  in  the  ovary  which,  after  fertilization,  develops  into  a  seed. 
Palet,  or  Palea.     The  upper  (inner)  of  the  two  envelopes  subtending  each  flower  of  a 

spikelet  of  a  grass  (p.  60,  Fig.  32). 
Palisade  Cells.     Elongated  cells  arranged  perpendicular  to  the  surface,  resembling  in 

cross  section  a  palisade  (Fig.  166). 

Palmate.     With  divisions  radiating  from  the  end  of  the  stem,  like  the  fingers  df  a  hand. 
Panicle.     A  loose,  branching  flower  cluster. 

Papilionaceous.  Butterfly-shaped,  such  as  the  flowers  of  the  pea. 
Papilla,  pi.  Papillae.  Soft  nipple-  or  club-shaped  protuberances. 
Pappus.  The  modified  calyx  lobes,  consisting  of  bristles,  hairs,  teeth,  or  a  cup,  which 

crown  the  achenes  of  the  Composites. 

Parenchyma.     The  simplest  form  of  tissue,  such  as  pith,  mesophyl,  etc.  (p.  20;  Fig.  i). 
Parenchyma,    Spongy.     A   loose    parenchyma   with   pronounced   intercellular   spaces 

(p.  20;  Fig.  2). 
Parqueted  Cells.      Elongated  cells  arranged  in  groups,  those  in  the  same  group  side 

by  side  and  extended  in  a  different  direction  from  those  in  other  groups  (Fig.  472). 
Parted.     With  divisions  extending  almost  to  the  midrib  or  base. 
Pedicel.     The  stem  of  a  single  flower  of  a  group. 
Peduncle.     The  stem  of  a  solitary  flower  or  a  group  of  flowers. 
Perianth.     The  floral  envelopes,  consisting  of  calyx,  or  calyx  and  corolla. 
Pericambium.     See  Pericycle. 

Pericarp,  or  Fruit  Coat.     The  matured  ovary  wall  (p.  33;    Figs.  17  and  18). 
Pericycle.     The  outer  layer  of  the  stele,  adjoining  the  endodermis  (p.  40). 
Periderm.     The  outer  bark,  consisting  chiefly  of  cork  cells. 

Perisperm.     The  part  of  a  seed  developed  from  the  nucellus  of  an  ovule  (p.  38;  Fig.  20). 
Petals.     See  Corolla. 
Petiole.     The  stem  of  a  leaf. 
Phanerogamous   Plants,  or   Phanerogams.     The   higher   plants   having   true    flowers 

with  stamens  and  pistils. 

Phelloderm.     The  tissue  formed  on  the  inner  side  of  the  phellogen. 
Phellogen.     The  meristematic  layer  forming  cork  on  'the  outside  and  phelloderm  or 

secondary  cortex  on  the  inside. 

Phenogamous  Plants,  or  Phenogams  (also  spelled  Phanogams}.     See  Phanerogams. 
Phloem,  Bast,  or  Leptone.      The  softer  part  of  a  fibro-vascular  bundle,  consisting  of 

sieve-tubes,  cambiform  cells,  and  other  non-lignified  elements  (p.  22). 
Photosynthesis,  or  Assimilation.     The  formation  through  the  agency  of  light  of  organic 

matter  in  chlorophyl  tissues  from  carbonic  acid  and  water  (p.  28). 
Pigment  Cells.     Cells  containing  coloring  matter. 

Pinnate.     Arranged  on  both  sides  of  an  axis,  like  the  vanes  of  a  feather. 
Pistil.     The  female  element  of  the  flower,  consisting  of  ovary,  style,  and  stigma. 
Pith.     The  central  parenchymatous  core  of  exogenous  roots  and  stems. 


682  GLOSSARY. 

Pits.     See  Pores. 

Placentae.     The  parts  of  the  ovary  bearing  the  ovules. 

Plastids,  or  Chromatophores.     Protoplasmic  grains,  including  .chloroplasts,  leucoplasts, 

and  chromoplasts  (p.  23). 

Plumule.     The  bud  or  growing  point  of  the  embryo  above  the  cotyledons  (Fig.  62). 
Polarization   Crosses.     Dark  crosses  seen  on  starch  grains  when  examined  under  the 

micro-polariscope  with  crossed  Nicol  prisms. 
Pollen  Grains.     The  fecundating  powder  formed  in  the  anthers. 
Pollen    Tubes.     The  tubes  formed  on  pollen  grains  which  penetrate  the  ovule  and 

effect  fertilization  (Fig.  19). 

Pome.     A  fleshy  fruit  with  united  receptacle  and  pericarp,  such  as  the  apple. 
Pores,  or  Pits.     Openings  or  depressions  in  cell  walls,  affording  communication  between 

adjoining  cells. 
Procambium.      The    elongated   cells   of  the   embryo  from   which   the   fibro- vascular 

bundles  are  developed. 
Proteids,  or  Albuminoids.    A  class  of  substances  containing  about  16  psr  cent  of  nitrogen, 

to  which  belong  gluten,  legumen,  etc.  (p.  24). 
Protoplasm.     The  living  matter  of  the  cell,  consisting  of  cytoplasm,  cell  nucleus,  and 

plastids  (p.  23). 
Pubescent.     Soft  hairy. 

Raceme.     A  flower  cluster  with  one-flowered  pedicels  arranged  along  a  common  axis. 
Rachis.     The  axis  of  a  spike  or  of  a  compound  leaf. 
Radial    Fibro-vascular    Bundle.      With  phloem  and  xylem  in  different  radial  planes 

alternating  with  each  other  (p.  45). 

Radial  Walls.     Walls  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  an  organ. 

Radicle.     The  stem  of  the  embryo,  from  the  lower  end  of  which  develops  the  root. 
Raphe.     The  strand  of  vascular  elements  joining  the  hilum  of  a  seed  with  the  chalaza 

(p.  35;  Fig.  19). 

Raphides.     Needle-shaped  crystals  (Fig.  9). 

Receptacle.      The  immediate  support  of  a  group  of  flowers  or  other  organs. 
Reniform.     Kidney-shaped. 
Reserve  Material.      Starch,  oil,  proteid,  or  other  materials  stored  for  future  use  in 

seeds,  stems,  rhizomes,  tubers,  and  other  organs. 
Reserve  Starch.     Starch  deposited  in  seeds,  rhizomes,  tubers,  and  other  organs  for 

future  use  (p.  643). 
Resins.     Solid  oxygenated  hydrocarbons  related  to  the  essential  oils,  insoluble  in  water 

but  soluble  in  ether,  essential  oils,  etc. 
Respiration.     The  oxidation  of  organic  matter  in  the  leaf  with  exhalation  of  carbonic 

acid  (p.  28). 
Reticulated.     Netted. 
Reticulated  Vessels.      With    thickenings    forming    regulations.     Intermediate    forms 

occur  between  these  and  spiral  vessels. 

Revolute.     Rolled  longitudinally  on  the  under  side  from  both  margins. 
Rhizomes,  or  Rootstocks.     Stems  or  branches  growing  beneath  or  partly  covered  by 

the  soil. 
Sagittate.     Arrow-shaped;  with  lobes  at  the  base  turned  downwards. 


GLOSSARY.  683 

Scalariform  Vessels        With  transversely  arranged  ribs  in  rows  like  the  rounds  of  a 

ladder  (Fig.  6). 
Sclerenchyma.      A  tissue  with  thickened  and  lignified  walls,  such  as  stone  cells  and 

bast  fibers. 

Sclerotic  Cells.     See  Stone  Cells. 
Sclerotium,  pi.  Sclerotia.     A  compacted  mass  of  sterile  hyphae  forming  the  resting  stags 

of  certain  fungi  (p.  164;  Fig.  141). 
Scutellum.     A  shield-like  sucker  (cotyledon)  on  the  side  of  the  embryo  in  grasses 

(p.  61;  Fig.  62). 

Secondary  Cortex.     The  cortex  formed  by  the  phellogen  outside  of  the  primary  cortex. 
Seed.     The  fertilized  and  matured  ovule. 
Seed  Coat.     See  Spermoderm. 
Sepals.     See  Calyx. 

Serrate.     With  margin  having  sharp  teeth  pointed  forwards. 
Sieve  Plates.     The  perforated  plates  forming  the  cross  partitions  of  sieve  tubes  and 

occurring  also  on  the  side  walls.  • 
Sieve  Tubes.      The  characteristic  elements  of  the  phloem,  consisting  of  soft  tubes  with 

perforated  cross  partitions  (p.  23;   Figs.  6  and  25). 
Silica  Cells.      Conical  cells,  corresponding   to    hairs,  found  on  the  epidermis  of  the 

glumes  and  palets  of  certain  cereals  (p.  62;    Fig.  45). 
Silicle.     A  short  silique. 
Silique.     The  pod  of  the  Crucifera,  opening  from  below  by  two  longitudinal  valves, 

leaving  the  seeds  attached  to  the  placentas. 
Sinuous,  or  Sinuate.     With  deeply  wavy  margins. 
Sinus.     A  cove  or  re-entrant  angle. 
Spathe.     A  large  bract  encircling  a  flower  cluster. 
Spatulate.     With  rounded  apex  and  narrow,  tapering  base. 
Spermoderm,    Testa,  or  Seed  Coat.      That  portion   of  the  skin   or  shell  of  a    seed 

developed  from  the  integuments  of  the  ovule  (p.  37). 
Sphacelia,  the  active  stage  of  ergot  (p.  164). 
Spike.     A  group  of  sessile  flowers  on  a  common  axis. 

Spikelet.  In  grasses,  a  group  of  flowers  subtended  by  two  empty  glumes  (p.  60;  Fig.  32). 
Spiral  Vessels.  Vessels  with  spiral  thickenings,  resembling  a  spiral  spring  (Fig.  6). 
Spongy  Parenchyma.  See  Parenchyma. 

Spores.     The  reproductive  bodies  of  cryptogams,  analogous  to  the  seeds  of  phanero- 
gams. 

Stamens.     The  male  elements  of  the  flower,  made  up  of  filament  and  anther. 
Starch  (Latin  Amylum).    A  carbohydrate  with  the  formula  (C6HioO5)n,  occurring  as 

grains  insoluble  in  water. 

Stegmata,  pi.      Cells  containing  silicious  bodies  (Fig.  232). 
Stele.     The  central  cylinder  of  a  stem  or  root  within  the  endodermis  (p.  40). 
Stigma.     The  end  portion  of  the  pistil  on  which  are  deposited  the  pollen  grains. 
Stoma,  pi.  Stomata;  or  Stomate,  pi.  Stomates.     The  openings  or  breathing  pores  of 

epidermal  tissues,  particularly  of  leaves  (p.  29;  Figs,  u  and  12). 
Stone  Cells,  or  Sclerotic  Cells.     Sclerenchyma  elements,  either  isodiametric  or  moder- 
ately elongated,  with  thick,  porous  walls  (p.  21;    Fig.  4). 


684  GLOSSARY. 

Stone  Fruit.     See  Drupe. 

Style.     The  neck  of  the  pistil  connecting  the  stigma  with  the  ovary. 

Subepidermal  Layer.     The  layer  of  cells  immediately  underlying  the  epidermis.     Here 

used  chiefly  for  the  subepidermal  layer  of  seeds. 
Suberin.     The  characteristic  constituent  of  cork  tissues. 
Subtend.     To  extend  underneath. 

Sucrose,  or  Cane  Sugar.     Ordinary  sugar  with  the  formula  Ci2H22On. 
Superior.     Growing  above  some  other  organ.     A  superior  calyx  is  grown  to  the  ovary 

i.e.  adnate.     A  superior  ovary  is  free  from  the  perianth. 
Suture.     A  seam  of  union,  or  line  of  dehiscence. 
Tannins.      Colorless  astringent  substances,   becoming  brown  on  drying,   which  are 

colored  blue  or  green  by  iron  salts. 
Testa.     See  Spermoderm. 
Terrete.     Circular  in  cross  section. 
Tracheae.     See  Vessels. 
Tracheids.     Elongated,   lignified  cells  of  the  xylem,   distinguished  from  vessels  by 

their  cross  partitions  (Fig.  232). 

Transitory  Starch.     Starch  temporarily  deposited  in  an  organ  (p.  643). 
Transpiration.     Exhalation  of  water  through  the  leaf. 
Trichomes.     See  Hairs. 
Tube  Cells.      Longitudinally  arranged  vermiform  cells,  especially  those  forming  the 

endocarp  of  cereals  (p.  62;    Fig.  36). 
Tuber.     A  thickened  portion  of  a  subterranean  stem. 
Twin   Cells.      Pairs  of  oval  or  crescent-shaped  cells  found  on  the  epidermis  of  the 

glumes  and  palets  of  certain  cereals  (p.  62;   Fig.  45). 
Ventral  Side.     The  inner  side,  facing  the  axis. 
Versatile.     Swinging  freely  on  its  support. 

Vessels,  or  Tracheae.     The  lignified  ducts  or  tubes  of  a  fibro- vascular   bundle,  dis- 
tinguished from  tracheids  by  the  absence  of  transverse  partitions  (p.  22;  Figs.  6 

and  25). 

Vittae.     Oil  ducts  of  umbelliferous  fruits  (p.  549). 
Volatile  Oils.     See  Essential  Oils. 
Water  Pores,  or  Water  Stomata.     Epidermal  openings  situated  at  the  ends  of  the  nerves 

of  leaves,  through  which  water  is  discharged. 
Wavy.     Curving  gently  in  and  out. 
Xylem,  Wood,  or  Hadrome.     The  portion  of  a  fibro- vascular  bundle  containing  the 

vessels  and  tracheids  (p.  22;  Figs.  6,  231,  and  232). 


INDEX. 


AbientinefB,  316 
Acarus  jarince,  50 

plumigcr,  50 
Accompanying  cells,  29 
Acer  Negundo,  477 
Aceracefg,  477 
Acetic  acid,  8 
Acid,  acetic,  8 

hydrochloric,  9 
nitric,  9 
picric,  25 
Acorn,  302 

coffee,  305 
flour,  306 
shells,  306 

A  cor  us  Calamus,  608 
Adonis  cestivalis,  154 
Flammea,  154 
Adzuki  bean,  241 
Aerial  stems,  39 
sEsculus  Hippocastanum,  657 
Africanischer  Nussbohnen-Kaffee,  436 
Agar-agar,  322 
AgaricinecE,  423 
Agaric  us  campestris,  423 
Aggregate  fruit,  33 
Aglaja  odorata,  452 
Agrostemma  Githago,  145,  148 
Akebia  leaves,  478 
Akebia  quinata,  478 
Albumen  fixative,  Meyer's,  17 
Alcanna  tincture,  8,  26 
Alcohol,   8 
Alcohol-hydrochloric     acid     test     of     flour, 

Vogl's,  53 

Alectorolophus  hirsutits,  145 
Aleurites  Molucca  na,  222 

triloba,  222     • 
Aleurone  grains,  24 
•Alfalfa,  265 
Alkali,  10,  1 6 
Alkaloidal  products,  427 
Alkaloids,  25 
Allerwelts-Kaffee,  436 


A  Ilium  Schcenoprasum,  627 
Allspice,  526 

ground,  530 
Almond,  333 

cake,  337 
coffee,  436 
flour,  337 
paste,  337 
shells,  337 

Alpinia  calcarata,  606 
Galanga,  606 
oMcinarum,  606 
Alstonia  theceformis,  483 
Alstrcemeria  pallida,  669 
Amanita  bulbosa,  423 

phalloides,  423 
Amaryllidea,  669 
Ammonia-water,  8 
Ammoniacal  copper  solution,  10 
Amomum  Cardamomum,  542 
maximum,  542 
subulatum,  542 
xanthioides,  542 
A morp ho phallus  si).,  669 
A  nacardiacece ,  315,  669 
Ananas sa  saliva,  395 
Andropogon  Sorghum,  97,  104 

var.  durr  /,  104 
var.  saccharatus,  103 
var.  technicus,  98 
A  nethum  graveolens,  564 
Angiosperms,  wood  of,  42 
Angrecum  fragrans,  483 
Anguillula  tritici,  50 
Aniline  dyes,  24,  320,  413,  522 
Anise,  558 
Annual  stems,  39 
Annular  vessels,  22 
Anthers,  31 

Anthoxanthum  odoratum,  273 
Apium  graveolens,  565 
Apple,  323 

pomace,  327 
preserves,  327 

685 


686 


INDEX. 


Apricot,  339 

compared  with  almond,  peach,  and 

plum,  336 
preserves,  340 
Aquijoliacea,  483 
Aracece,  608,  666,  669 
Arackis  hypogaa,  266 
,\rata's  wool  test,  413,  522 
Araticaria  sp.,  669 
Araucariactftf,  669 
Arenga  saccharijera,  667 
Arillode,  38 
Arillus,  37 
Arrowroot,  Brazilian,  665 

East  India,  662 

Guiana,  395,  658,  663 

Portland,  666 

Queensland,  662 

Tahiti,  667 

tous  les  mois,  662 

West  India,  660 
Artemisia  vulgaris,  619 
Artichoke,  Jerusalem,  416 
Artificial  flavors  in  jam,  etc.,  320 
Artocarpea,  386,  659 
Artocarpus  incisa,  659 
Arum  starch,  666 
Arum  esculentum,  666 
Italicum,  666 
maculatum,  666 
Asci,  420 
A  scomycetes,  420 
Ash  leaves,  462 

mountain,  463 
Asi-rai,  183,  188 
Asperula  odorata,  273 
Asphodelus  tenuifolius,  187 
Assimilation,  28 
Astragalus,  264 

baeticus,  264,  436 
Aurantiacece,  452 
Autumn  morel,  423 
Avena  fatua,  in,  145,  146 
orientalis,  1 1 1 
saliva,  in 
Awns,  61 
Ayer's  hygienic  substitute  for  coffee,  436 

Babiana  a  urea,  632 
Balsam,  Canada,  in  xylol,  8 

mounting  in,  19 
BamihPs  test  of  .flour,  70 
Banana,  393 

flour,  395 
starch,  394,  658 
Barbarea  vulgaris,  193 
Bark,  38,  40 
Barks,  microscopic  elements  of,  41 

used  as  spices,  585 
Barley,  80 

by-products,  85 

farina,  85 

flour,  85 


Barley,  pearl,  85 

products,  84 
roasted,  85 
Basidiomycetes,  420 
Bast,  22,  41 

fibers,  21,  23 
Batatas  edulis,  665 
Batavia  cassia,  586,  589 
Bay  berry,  579 
Bay-leaf,  616 
Bayrischer  Kaffee,  436 
Bean,  adzuki,  241 

black-eyed,  247 

broad,  250 

carob,  275 

Chickasaw  Lima,  258 

China,  247 

common,  238 

Dutch  case-knife,  240 

Egyptian,  249 

horse,  250 

hyacinth,  249 

Jack,  258 

Lima,  241 

Sieva,  241 

soja,  248 

soy,  248 

Spanish,  240 

Tonka,  273 

Tonquin,  273 

Windsor,  250 
Bean-tree  starch,  658 
Bed  straws,  145,  161 
Beech-nut,  307 

cake,  308,  309 
Beet,  417 
Beneke's  chloroform  test  of  flour,  53 

method  for  clearing,  172 
Benzoic  acid  in  fruit,  322 
Bertholletia  excelsa,  312 
nobilis,  312 
Beta  vulgaris,  417 
Bi-collateral  bundles,  39 
Bijora  radians,  145,  159 
Bindweed,  black,  138,  145,  187 

small,  145,  157 
Black  bindweed,  138,  145,  187 

caraway,  156 

currant,  362 

preserves,  363 

mustard,  180 

pea,  247 

pepper,  507 

ground,  507 

raspberry,  354 

walnut,  298 
Black-eyed  bean,  247 
Blackberry,  354 

preserves,  356 
Blue  lupine,  255 
Blueberry,  370 

leaves,  480 
preserves,  372 


INDEX. 


687 


Boletus  bulbosus,  424 

edulis,  424 
Bomarea  sp.,  669 
Bombacea,  211 
Borassus  flabellijormis,  667 
Bordered  pits,  42 
Bran,  barley,  86 

maize,  71,  96 
rice,  no 
rye,  79 

wheat,  71,  96 
Brassica  Besseriana,  183 

campestris,  var.  Sarson,  179,  187 
dissecta,  189 
Iberijolia,  187 
juncea,  183,  188 
Napus,  185 

var.  dichotoma,  188 
nigra,  180 
Rapa,  187,  419 
rugosa,  1 88 
Sinapistrum,  182,  184 
Brazilian  arrowroot,  665 
Brazilnut,  312 
Bread,  56 

Breadfruit  starch,  659 
Breakfast  foods,  70,  116 
Brewers'  grains,  85 
Brick  tea,  452 
Broad  bean,  250 
Bromeliacece,  395 
Bromus  secalinus,  130,  145 
Broom  corn,  97 
Bryonia  epigcea,  670 
Buckwheat,  common,  132 
flour,  137 
grits,  137 
hulls,  137 
middlings,  137 
products,  137 
starch,  135,  654 
Tartary,  138 
Buckwheats,  132 
Bulbs,  43 

Bundle  zone,  40,  45 

Bundles,  nbro-vascular,  22,  30,  39,  44,  45 
bi-collateral,  39 
collateral,  39,  44 
concentric,  44 
radial,  45 
Buttercup,  145 

fruit,  153 
Butternut,  298 
By-products,  barley,  85 
brewery,  58 
buckwheat,  137 
distillery,  58 
glucose,  58 
maize,  96 
oat,  116 
rye,  79 
starch,  58 


Cadelle,  50 

Ccssalpinia  pulcherrima,  436 

Ccesalpiniece.,  233 

Cafe  de  Rheims,  436 

Caillettet's  chloroform  test  of  flour,  53 

Cake,  almond,  337 

beechnut,  308,  309 

black  mustard,  182 

Brazilnut,  314 

candlenut,  222 

cocoanut,  289 

cottonseed,  209,  210 

false  flax,  191 

hazelnut,  311 

hemp-seed,  216 

linseed,  204 

madia,  199 

niger  seed,  200 

palm,  292 

poppy  seed,  226 

pumpkin  seed,  405 

rape,  186 

sesame,  219 

sunflower,  197 

white  mustard,  179 
Calamus  root,  608 
Calandra  granaria,  50 

oryza,  50 
Calcium  carbonate,  21,  27 

oxalate,  21,  25,  26 
Calendula  officinalis,  627 
Caltha  palustris,  640 
Calyx,  30 

Cambiform  cells,  22,  41 
Cambium,  39,  40,  45 
Camelina  sativa,  186,  189 
Camellia  leaves,  467 
Camellia  Japonica,  467 

Thea,  452 
Camera  lucida,  7 
Canada  balsam  in  xylol,  8 

mounting  in,  19 
Canavalia  ensiformis,  258 
obtusi folia,  258 
Candlenut,  222 
Cane  sugar,  25 
Canella  bark,  597 
Canella  alba,  597 
CanellacecE,  597 
Canna  starch,  662 
Canna  Achiras,  662 

coccinea,  662 

edulis,  662 

Indica,  662 
Cannabinefp,  212 
Cannabis  sativa,  212 

var.  Indica,  212 
Canton  cassia,  585 
Cape  saffron,  631 
Caper  fruits,  640 
Capers,  639 

German,  640 
Capparidacece,  639 


688 


INDEX. 


Capparis  spinosa,  639 

Capraria  biflora,  483 

Caprifig,  386 

Capsella  Bursa-Pastoris,  186,  191 

Capsicum  annuum,  515 

jastigiatum,  515,  523 
jrutescens,  515,  523 
minimum,  523 
Caraway,  555 

black,  156 
Cardamoms,  542 

Ceylon,  547 
Malabar,  542 
Carob  bean,  275 
Carrot,  418 

Carthamus  tinctorius,  629 
Carum  Carvi,  555 
Caruncle,  38 
Carya  alba,  299 

olivceformis,  298 
CaryophyllacecB,  148 
Caryophyllaceous  seeds,  148 
Caryophyllus  aromaticus,  632 
Caryota  urens,  667 
Cassava  starch,  664 
Cassia,  585 

buds,  591 
coffee,  262 
ground,  590 
lignea,  585 
vera,  586 
Cassia  occidentalis,  262,  436 

sophora,  436 
Castanea-nut,  312 
Castanea  crenata,  299 
saliva,  299 

var.  Americana,  299 
Castanospermum  Australe,  658 
Castor  bean,  220 

pomace,  169,  220 
Cathartus  advena,  50 

gemallatus,  50 
Catsup,  tomato,  413 
Cattle  foods,  condimental,  499 

methods  of  exami- 
nation of,  500 
cereal,  57 

methods  of  examination 

of>  59 

Caucasian  tea,  481 
Cayenne  pepper,  523 

ground,  525 

Ceanothus  Americanus,  483 
Ceibo  pentandra,  211 
Celery  seed,  565 
Cells,  accompanying,  29 

cross,  62 

guard,  29 

palisade,  29,  206,  233 

tube,  62 
Cellulose,  20 
Cembra  pine,  316 
Centaurea  Cyanus,  145,  160 


Ceratonia,  233 

Siliqua,  275 
Cereal  cattle  foods,  5  7 

methods  of  examination 

of>  59 
Cereals,  60 

microscopic  characters  of,  62 
analytical  keys  to,  63 
Ceylon  cardamom,  547 
cinnamon,  593 
Chatochloa  glauca,  124 
viridis,  118 
Chaff,  58 
Chalaza,  35 

Chamcenerium  an gusti folium,  459 
Charlock,  146,  182,  184,  186 
Chemical  examination 
of  cereal  cattle  foods,  59 
of  condimental  cattle  and  poultry  foods, 

500 

of  flour  and  meal,  54 
of  fruit  products,  321 
of  oil-seed  products,  170 
of  spices  and  condiments,  496 
Chenopodiacece,  417 
Chenopodium  ambrosioides,  483 
Cherry,  341 

leaves,  468 
Mazzard,  341 
Morello,  341 
Chess,  130,  145 
Chestnut,  299 

meal,  301 
shells,  302 
starch,  301,  656 
Chick  pea,  256 
Chickasaw  Lima  bean,  258 
Chicorium  Intybus,  438 
Chicory,  438 
Chili  sauce,  320 
Chillies,  523 
China  bean,  247 
cassia,  585 

Chloral  hydrate  solution,  8,  16 
Chloranthus  inconspicuus,  452 
Chloroform,  8 

test  of  flour,  Beneke's,  53 

Caillettet's,  53 

Chlorophyl  grains,  23,  29,  30 
Chloroplasts,  23 
Chlorzinc  iodine  solution,  8 
Chocolate,  442,  447 
malt,  449 
milk,  449 
sweet,  448 

Choiromyces  mceandriformis,  422 
Chromatophores,  23 
Chromoplasts,  24 
Cicer  arietinum,  256 
Cinnamomum  aromaticum,  585 
Burmanni,  586 
Cassia,  585,  591 
Ceylonicum,  593 


INDEX. 


689 


Cinnamon/turn  Culilawan,  596 

Loureirii,  586 
Cinnamon,  585,  590 

Ceylon,  593 
Citric  acid,  320 
Citron,  381 

Citrullus  vulgaris,  408 
Citrus  fruits,  376 
Citrus  Aurantium,  var.  amara,  376 

var.  Sinensis,  376 
medica,  var.  genuina,  381     ' 

var.  Limon,  381 

Clark's  phosphi  cereal  nervine  coffee,  436 
Claviceps  purpurea,  164 
Clearing,  16 
Cleavers,  161 
Clove  bark,  594 
fruit,  637 
stems,  636 
Cloves,  632 

ground,  636 
Cob  meal,  95 
Cobnut,  309 
Coca,  485 

Cockle,  54,  145,  148 
Cockle-wheat,  50 
Coclococcus,  295 
Cocoa,  442 

bean,  442 
shells,  448 
Cocoanut,  281 

cake,  289 
shells,  289 
shredded,  289 
Cocos  nucifera,  281 
Coffea  Arabica,  427,  466 

Liberica,  438 
Coffee,  425 

acorn,  305 
adulterants  of,  435 
artificial,  435 
astragalus,  264 
cassia,  262 

fig,  389 

ground,  434 

hulls,  434,  435 

leaves,  466 

Liberian,  438 

Mogdad,  262 

Soudan,  257 

substitutes,  435 

Swedish  continental,  264 
Cola  acuminata,  452 
Cold-water  test  of  oil-seeds,  170 
Collateral  bundles,  39,  44 
Collections,  n 
Collenchym,  20 
Collenchyma,  20,  21 

Collin  &  Perrot's  method  for  oil-seeds,  170 
Colocasia  antiquorum,  669 
Color  test  of  flour,  52 
Commercial  powders,  14 
starches,  643 


Composite,  160,  193,  416,  438,  440,  619,  627. 

629 

Composite  oil  fruits,  193 
Compound  fruit,  33 

microscope,  6 
Condimental  cattle  and  poultry  foods,  499 

methods  of  examination  of,  500 
Condiments,  see  Spices 
Conium  maculatum,  560  • 
Convolvulacece,  157,  665 
Convolvulus  arvensis,  145,  157 
Copernica  cerijera,  292 
Copper  solution,  ammoniacal,  10 
Coriander,  562 
Coriandrum  sativum,  562 
Cork,  40 

cells,  22 
Corms,  43 
Corn  bran,  71 

cob  in  wheat  bran,  71 
crisp,  96 
flower,  145,  1 60 
Jerusalem,  104 
Kaffir,  104 
poppy,  145 
starch,  96,  651 
Cornichons  de  caprier,  640 
Corolla,  30 
Cortex,  39,  45 

caryophyllata,  596 
cassiae  caryophyllatus,  594 
primary,'  40 
secondary,  40 
Corylus  Americana,  309 
Avellana,  309 
Californica,  309 
colurna,  309 
pontica,  309 
rostrata,  309 
tubulosa,  309 
Corypha  cerifera,  292 
Cotton  seed,  205 

and  Kapok   seed,  comparative 

table  of,  2ii 
Sea  Island,  205 
cake,  209,  210 
hulls,  210 
meal,  210 
Cotyledons,  38 
Coumarin,  274 
Coumarouna  odorata,  273 

oppositifolia,  273 
Cover-glasses,  7 
Cow  herb,  145,  151 
pea,  247 

wheat,  54,  145,  156 
Cowberry,  366 
Crab-apple,  324 
Cracked  corn,  95 
Cranberry,  366 

preserves,  370 
Cream  of  wheat,  71 
Cress,  winter,  193 


690 


INDEX. 


CrocosMd  aurea,  632 
Crocus  sativus,  623 
vernus,  623 
Cross-sections,  12 
Crown  allspice,  526 
Cruci feres,  172,  419 
Cruciferous  Seeds,  172 

analytical  key  to,  174 
microscopic  characters  of, 

172 

Crude  fiber  method,  17,  60 
Crystal  clusters,  26 
fibers,  42 

rosettes,  24,  25,  26 
sand,  26,  27 

Crystals,  single,  of  calcium  oxalate,  25,  26 
Crystalloids,  24 
Cubebs,  513 
Cucumber,  406 
Cucumis  Melo,  407 

sativus,  406 
Cucurbit  fruits,  401 
Cucurbita  maxima,  406 

Pepo,  402 

Cucurbitacece,  401,  670 
Cumin,  560 

Cuminum  Cyminum,  560 
Cuoxam,  10 
Cup  nuts,  299 
Cuprammonia,  10 
Cupulifera,  299 
Curcuma  starch,  662 
Curcuma  angustifolia,  662 
Leucorrhiza,  662 
longa,  602,  662 
rubescens,  662 
Zedoaria,  603,  605 
Currant,  black,  362 

red,  357 

Currants,  Xanti,  382,  385 
Cuticle,  21,  29 
Cutin,  21 

Cycas  revoluta,  667 
Cydonia  vulgar  is,  331 
Cyperus  esculentus,  436 
Cystoliths,  27 
Cytoplasm,  23 

Dandelion,  440 

Darnel,  54,  125,  145,  146,  251 

fungus  layer  in,  129 
Date,  390 

stones,  392 
Datel-Kaffee,  435 
Daucus  Car ota,  158,  418 
Decorticated  white  pepper,  509 
Delphinium  Consolida,  145,  155 

Staphysagria,  155 
Deutscher  Kaffee,  436 

Diastase  method  for  flour,  Steinbusch's,  55 
Dicypellium  caryophyllatum,  594 
Dill,  564 
Dioscoracece,  663 


Dioscorea  aculeata,  663 

alata,  663 

glabra,  663 

Japonica,  663 

nummularia,  663 

sativa,  663 

tomentosa,  663 
Dipteryx  odor  at  a,  273 
Discomycetes,  422 
Dissected  mustard,  189 
Dolichos  bulbosus,  670 

Lablab,  249 

Sinensis,  247 
Domkaffee,  436 
Dracontium  sp.,  669 
Drupes,  323 

DuctS,   22 

Dulcit,  25 

Durrha,  104 

Dutch  case-knife  bean,  240 

Dyes,  in  jam,  etc.,  320 

East  India  arrowroot,  662 
Echocerus  cornutus,  50 

maxillosus,  50 
Egyptian  bean,  249 
Elceis  Guineensis,  290 
Elaphomyces,  422 

Elements,  principal  histological,  20 
Elettaria  Cardamomum,  542,  547 
Eleusine  Coracana,  .670 
Embedding,  13 
Embryo,  35,  38,  61 

sac,  35 

Emergences,  29 
Emmer,  75 
Endocarp,  35 
Endodermis,  39,  45 
Endosperm,  35,  38,  61 
Endothecium,  31 
English  plantain,  163 
walnuts,  296 
Ephestia  Kuehniella,  50 
Epicarp,  35 
Epidermal  tissues,  21 
Epidermis,  21,  29,  30,  39,  45 
Epilobium  angustifolium,  459 

hirsutum,  461 
Episporium,  165 
Ergot,  51,  54,  164 
Ericacece,  366,  480,  481 
Ericaceous  fruits,  366 
Eriodendron  anjractuosum,  211 
Eriirichium  gnaphaloides^  483 
Eruca  sativa,  189 
Ervum  Lens,  245 
Erysimum  orientate,  186,  192 
Erythronium  Dens-canis,  670 
ErythroxylacecB,  485 
Erythroxylon  Coca,  485 
Essential  oils,  26 
Ether,  8 
Eugenia  caryophyllata,  632 


INDEX. 


691 


Euphorbiacecr,  220,  222,  664 
European  walnut,  295 
Eye-pieces,  6 

Faba  vulgar  is,  250 
Facing  of  tea,  456 
Fagacece,  477 
Fagi-Kadsura-akebi,  478 
Fagopyrum  esculentum,  132,  654 
Tartaricum,  132,  138 
Fag  us  ferruginea,  307 

sylvatica,  307 
False  flax,  186,  189 
Fats,  26 
Fatty  oils,  26 
Fecule  de  pia,  667 
Fehling  solution,  8,  25 
Feigenkaffee,  436 
Fennel,  552 
Fenugreek,  259 
Ferric  chloride,  8 

Fibro-vascular  bundles,  22,  30,  39,  44,  45 
bi-collateral,  39 
collateral,  39,  44 
concentric,  44 
radial,  45 
Ficus  Carica,  386 
Field  pennycress,  192 
Fig,  386 

coffee,  389 
goat,  386 
preserves,  389 
Figine,  436 
Filbert,  309 

Fischer  Mills  malt  coffee,  436 
Fixative,  Meyer's  albumen,  17 
Flag,  sweet,  608 
Flour,  49 

acorn,  306 
almond,  337 
banana,  395 
black  mustard,  182 
buckwheat,  137 

prepared    or    self-raising, 

137 

cryptogamic  contaminations  of,  51 
insect  and  other  animal  contamina- 
tions of,  50 
maize,  95 

methods  of  examination  of,  52 
mineral  adulterants  of,  49 
pea,  243 
rice,  no 
rye,  79 
wheat,  70 
white  mustard,  179 
Flour-beetle,  broad-horned,  50 
confused,  50 
rust  red,  50 
slender-horned,  50 
small  eyed,  50 
Flour-mite,  common,  50 
feathered,  50 


Flower,  30 

Flowers  used  as  spices,  622 

Fceniculum  capillaceum,  552 

dulce,  552 
Foramen,  35 
Force,  70 

Fould's  wheat  germ,  71 
Foxtail,  green,  118 
yellow,  124 

Fragaria  Chiloensis,  343 
vesca,  343,  471 
Virginiana,  343 
Frank-Kaffee,  436 
Franzosischer  Kaffee,  436 
Fraxinus  sp.,  462 
French  truffles,  420 
Fritillaria  imperialis,  670 
Frucht-Kaffee,  436 
Fruit,  33,  319 

aggregate,  33 
compound,  33 
multiple,  33 
products,  319 

methods  of  examination  of, 

320 
Fruits,  citrus,  376 

cucurbit,  401 
ericaceous,  366 
miscellaneous,  382 
myrtaceous,  526 
rosaceous,  323 
saxifragaceous,  357 
solanaceous,  410,  515 
umbelliferous,  549 

analytical  key  to,  551 
comparative  histology 

'of,  55° 
Fungi,  164,  410 

edible,  410 
Fungus  impurities  of  grain,  164 

layer  in  darnel,  129 
Funiculus,  35 

Galangal,  606 
Galium  Aparine,  161 
Gardenia  florida,  452 
G  aster  omycetes,  420,  422 
Gaylussacia  resinosa,  373 
German  millet,  118 

rape,  187 

soda  coffee,  435 

truffles,  421 
Gesneracetf,  217 
Gherkin,  406 
Ginger,  599 

exhausted,  602 
ground,  602 
Glands,  21,  29,  30 
Globoids,  25 
Gloriosa  superba,  670 
Glucosides,  25 
Glumes,  empty,  60 

flowering,  60 


692 


INDEX. 


Gluten  feed,  96 
meal,  96 
test  of  flour,  54 
Glycerine,  9 

gum,  9 

jelly,  Kaiser's,  9 

mounting  in,  18 
mounting  in,  18 
Glycine  hispida,  248 
Goat  fig,  386 
Gonidia,  164 
Gooseberry,  363 

preserves,  365 
Gossypium  arboreum,  205 

barbadense,  205,  210 
herbaceum,  205 
Graham  flour,  70 
Grain,  49 
Grain-beetle,  European,  50 

red  or  square-necked,  50 
saw-toothed,  50 
Grain-o,  436 
Graminece,  60,  670 
Grape,  382 

pomace,  385 
preserves,  385 
Green  foxtail,  118 
Grits,  barley,  85 

buckwheat,  137 
spelt,  75 
wheat,  71 

Gromwell  leaves,  458 
Ground  substance,  24 
Guarana,  451 
Guard  cells,  29 
Guiana  arrowroot,  395,  663 

vanilla,  578 
Guizotia  Abyssimca,  200 

o lei j 'era,  200 
Gums,  25 
Guzerat  Raps,  187 
Gymnosperms,  wood  of,  42 
Gyromitra  esculenta,  422 

Hadrome,  22 
Hairs,  21,  29 

root,  45 

Hairy  vetch,  252 
Hanover  truffles,  421 
Hazelnut,  309 

cake,  31.1 

meal,  311 

shells,  311 

Hebebrand's  method  of  clearing;  172 
Helianthus  annuus,  194 

tuber  osus,  416 
Helvetia  Infula,  423 
Hemp,  Indian,  212 
Hemp -seed,  212 
Herb  patience,  622 
Hickory-nut,  299 
Hilum,  35 
Histological  elements,  principal,  20 


Hollow  seed,  159 

Homeopathischer  Gesundheitskaffee,  435 

Hominy,  96 

feed,  96 
Honey,  32 

pollen  grains  in,  32 
Hordeum  sativum,  80 

var.  distichon,  80 
var.  hexastichon,  80 
var.  vulgare,  So 
Horse  bean,  250 
Horse-chestnut  starch,  657 
Huckleberry,  373 

preserves,  376 
Hulls,  bean,  240 

black  mustard,  183 

buckwheat,  137 

coffee,  434,  435 

cottonseed,  210 

oat,  116 

rice,  no 

white  mustard,  179 
Hungarian  grass,  118 
Hyacinth  bean,  249 
Hydrangea  leaves,  476 
Hydrangea  Hortensia,  476 
Hydrochloric  acid,  concentrated,  9 

method  for  flour,  55 
Hygienischer  Nahrkaffee,  435 
Hymenium,  420 
Hymenomycetes,  423 
Hypoderm,  35 
Hypoxidece,  670 
Hypoxis  aurea,  670 
Hyssop,  615 
Hyssopus  officinalis,  615 

Ilex  Paraguariensis,  483 
Itticium  religiosum,  571,  572 

verum,  566 

Impregnating  and  embedding,  13 
Indian  cassia,  586 

colza,  187 

hemp,  212 

mustard,  183,  188 

rape,  179 

brown,  188 
Integuments,  35 
Inulin,  25 
Inversion,  25 
Invert  sugar,  25 
Iodine  in  potassium  iodide,  9 

tincture,  9 

treatment  with,  16 
Ipomoea  Batatas,  665 
Iridacece,  623,  632 
Ivory-nut,  293 

Polynesian,  295 

Jack  bean,  258 
Jamaica  pepper,  526 
Jamaika-Kaffee,  435 
Jambosa  Caryophyllus,  632 


INDEX. 


693 


Jams,  319 

adulterants  of,  319 
Japanese  potato,  415 
Jasminum,  452 
Javelle  water,  9 
Jerusalem  artichoke,  416 

corn,  104 
Jesuit  tea,  483 
J  uglandacea,  295 
Juglans  cinerea,  298 

nigra,  298 

regia,  295 
Jumper  berry,  582 
Juniper  us  communis,  582 

Kaffir  corn,  104 
Kaiser's  glycerine  jelly,  9 
Kanon,  435 
Kapok  seed,  211 

and     cottonseed,      comparative 

table  of,  211 
Kentucky  coffee,  436 
Kneipp  malt  coffee,  436 
Kola  nut,  452 
Kraft-Kaffee,  436 
Kraunhia  floribunda,  475 

La  Guayra  vanilla,  578 

Labarraque's  solution,  9,  16 

Labiates,  415,  610,  612,  613,  615 

Lablab  vulgaris,  249 

Labrador  tea,  483 

Lagerheim's  test  for  benzoic  acid  in  fruit 

products,  321 
Lambert's  hazelnut,  309 
Lantana  pseudothea,  483 
Lapisma  saccharine,  50 
Lardizabalacea,  478 
Larkspur  seed,  145,  155 
Latex  tubes,  23 
Lauck's  method  for  flour,  56 
LauracecB,  579,  585,  594,  616 
Laurus  cinnamomum,  586 

nobilis,  579,  616 
Leaf,  28 

Leaves  used  as  spices,  610 
Ledum,  483 
Legumes,  233 

analytical  key  to,  235 

chief  characters  of,  235 

microscopic  characters  of,  233 
LeguminosfE,  233,  670 
Lemon,  381 
Lens  esculenta,  245 
Lentil,  245 

Leontodon  Taraxacum,  440 
Lepidium  campestre,  186,  192 

sativum,  192 
Leptome,  22 
Leucoplasts,  23,  644 
Liberian  coffee,  438 
Lie  tea,  456 
Lignin,  20,  21 


Liliacece,  670 
Lima  bean,  241 
Linacea,  202 
Linseed,  202 

cake,  204 

meal,  204 

Linum  usitatissimum,  202 
Lithospermum  arvense,  145 

officinale,  458 
Lodicules,  61 

Lolium  temulentum,  125,  145,  146,  251 
Long  cardamom,  547 

pepper,  511 

Longitudinal  sections,  12 
Louse  seed,  155 
Lucerne,  265 
Lupine,  blue,  255 

yellow,  253 

white,  255 
Lupinus  albus,  255 

angustifolius,  255 

var.  leucospermus,  255 

luteus,  253 

Lycopersicum  esculentum,  410 
Lyperia  crocea,  631 

Macaroni  wheat,  65 

Macassar  nutmeg  and  mace,  540 

Mace,  Bombay,  540 

Macassar,  540 

true,  531 

Macerating  mixture,  Schultze's,  10 
Maceration,  15 
Madi,  197 
Madia  seed,  197 
Madia  saliva,  197 
Magnoliacetf,  566 
Maize,  86 

bran,  96 

cake,  96 

cob,  52,  96 

flour,  96 

meal,  95 

products,  95 

silk,  626,  632 

smut,  1 66 

starch,  95,  651 

white  milo,  104 

yellow  milp,  104 
Malabar  cardamom,  542 

cassia,  586 
Malt,  84 

chocolate,  449 
sprouts,  86 
Malta- Vita,  70 
Malto-Kaffee,  436 
Malvaceae,  205,  670 
Mangifera  Indica,  669 
Mango,  669 
Manihot  aipi,  664 

utilissima,  664 
Mannit,  25 
Maple  leaves,  477 


INDEX. 


Maranta  starch,  660 
Maranta  arundinacea,  660 
M arantacetz ,  660,  662 
Marigold  flowers,  626,  627 
Marjoram,  612 
Marmalades,  319 

adulterants  of,  319 
Marsh  marigold,  640 
Mate,  483 

Meadowsweet  leaves,  473 
Meal,  bean,  239 

chestnut,  301 
corn  and  cob,  96 
cottonseed,  210 
hazelnut,  311 
linseed,  204 
maize,  95 
Meal-worm,  dark,  50 

yellow,  50 
Mechanical  stage,  7 
Medico  go  saliva,  265 
Medullary  rays,  40 
Melampyrum  arvense,  54,  145,  156 
Melilotin  Kaffee,  436 
Melilotus  officinalis,  273 
Melitose,  25 
Mesocarp,  35 
Mesophyl,  29 

Methods  of  examination,  12 
of  cereal  cattle  foods,  59 
of  flour,  52 
of  fruit  products,  320 
of  meal,  52 

of  oil-seed  products,  1 70 
of  powders,  14 

of  spices  and  condiments,  496 
Metroxylon  Koenigii,  667 
lave,  667 
Rumphii,  667 
Sagus,  667 
Mexican  allspice,  526 

tea,  483 

Meyer's  albumen  fixative,  17 
Micrometer,  6 
Micropyle,  37 
Microscope,  compound,  6 

simply,  6 

Microscopic  examination 
of  cereal  cattle  foods,  59 
of  condimental  cattle  and  poultry  foods, 

501 

of  flour  and  meal,  54 
of  fruit  products,  321 
of  oil -seed  products,  171 
of  spices  and  condiments,  497 
Microscopic  mounts,  n 
Microtome,  7 

Middlings,  buckwheat,  137 
rye,  79 
wheat,  71 

Milk  chocolate,  449 
Millet,  common,  116 
German,  118 


Millon's  reagent,  9,  24 
Mogdad  coffee,  262,  436 
Mokara  Kaffee,  436 
Mokka-Sakka-Kaffee,  435 
Monarda,  483 
Moracece,  464 
Morchella  esculenta,  422 
Morels,  422 

Morphology  of  organs,  28 
Morus  alba,  464 

nigra,  464 

Moth,  Angoumois  grain,  50 
Indian  meal,  50 
meal  snout-,  50 
Mediterranean  flour,  50 
wolf,  50 

Mountain  ash-leaves,  463 
Mounting  in  Canada  balsam,  19 
in  glycerine,  18 
in  glycerine  jelly,  18 
in  water,  15 
permanent,  18 
Mounts,  microscopic,  n 
Mulberry  leaves,  464 
Multiple  fruit,  33 
Musa  sapient  urn,  393 

var.  paradisiaca,  393 
Musacea,  393 
Mushrooms,  423 
Muskmelon,  407 
Mussaende  Kaffee,  435 
Mustard,  black,  180 
brown,  180 
dissected,  189 
flour,  black,  182 
white,  179 
hedge,  186,  191 
hulls,  black,  183 
white,  179 
Indian,  183,  188 
prepared,  183 
Sarepta,  182,  183 
treacle,  186,  192 
white,  176 
yellow,  176 
Mycelium,  164 
Myrica  acris,  579 
Myristica  argentea,  531,  540 
jragrans,  531 
Malabarica,  540 
Myristicacea,  531 
Myrosin  cells,  179 
Myrtacece,  312,  526,  632 
Myrtaceous  fruits,  526 
Myrtus  Ugni,  483 

Naphthylene-blue  method  for  flour,  Yogi's, 

56 

Nasturtium,  640 
Nectaries,  30 
Negar -Kaffee,  '436 
Negundo  fraxini folium,  477 
Nelumbium  speciosum,  670 


INDEX. 


695 


New  era  hygienic  coffee,  436 
New  Jersey  tea,  483 
Nicotiana  ritstica,  486 

Tabacum,  486 
Nigella  arvensis,  156 
Niger  seed,  200 
Nitric  acid,  concentrated,  9 
Nose-piece,  6 
Nucellar  tissue,  38 
Nuceilus,  35 
Nucleus,  23 
Nut-oil,  309 
Nutmeg  and  mace,  531 

Macassar,  540 

true,  531 

Nutritive  layer,  37 
Nuts,  281 

miscellaneous,  312 
Nymphaacece,  670 

Oak  leaves,  477 
Oatmeal,  116 
Oats,  in 

rolled,  116 
Objectives,  6 
CEnotherece,  459 
Oil  seeds,  169 

composite,  193 

cruciferous,  172 

methods  of  examination  of,  170 

miscellaneous,  202 

products,  169 

Oil  solvents,  treatment  with,  16  -^ 
Old  grist-mill  entire-wheat  coffee,  436 
Olea  Euro  pea,  226 
Oleacece,  226,  462 
Olive,  226 
Olive-oil,  9 
Olive-pomace,  228 
Olive-stones,  228 
Orange,  376 

marmalade,  380 
OrchidacefB,  573 
Oriental  pear,  328 
Origanum  Majorana,  610 
Oryza  sativa,  105,  652 
Osmanthus  fragrans,  452 
Oswego  tea,  483 
Ovary,  32 
Ovules,  32,  35 

Pachira  aquatica,  670 
Pahara  rai,  188 
Palai,  188 
Palangi,  188 
Palet,  60 

Palisade  cells,  29,  233 
Palm  cake,  292 

fruits,  281 

nut,  290 

vanilla,  579 
Palmce,  281,  390 
Palor.us  ratzeburgi,  50 


Pancratium  maritimum,  669 
Panicum  miliaceum,  116,  124 
Papaver  Rhceas,  145,  627 
somniferum,  223 
Papaveracece,  223 
Papilionacece,  233,  475,  640 
Paprika,  515,  626 

ground,  522 
Para-nut,  312 
Paramne,  9 

bath,  7 

impregnating  and  embedding  with, 

13 

Paraguay  tea,  483 
Paraphyses,  422 
Parenchyma,  20 

spongy,  20,  21 
Parkia  Africana,  257,  436 
biglandulosa,  670 
biglobosa,  436 
Roxburgii,  257 
Paullinia  sorbilis,  451 
Pea,  black,  247 
chick,  256 
cow,  247 
field,  242 
flour,  243 
garden,  242 
Peach,  337 

compared  with  almond,   plum,   and 

apricot,  336 
preserves,  339 
Peanut,  266 

butter,  272 
cake,  272 
shells,  272 
Pear,  328 

oriental,  328 
Pearl  barley,  85 
Pecan  nut,  298 
Penny-cress,  186,  192 
Peonia,  627 
Pepper,  502 

black,  507 
Cayenne,  523 
Jamaica,  526 
long,  511 
red,  523 
shells,  509 
white,  508 

decorticated,  509 
Peppergrass,  wild,  186,  192 
Perennial  roots,  45 
stems,  40 
Pericambium,  45 
Pericarp,  33,  61 
Pericycle,  40,  45 
Perigord  truffles,  420 
Perisperm,  35,  38 
Permanent  mounting,  18 
Phaseolus  lunatus,  241 

var.  macrocarpus,  241 
multiflorus,  240 


696 


INDEX. 


Phaseolus  Mungo  var.  glaber,  241 

vulgar  is,  238 
Phellogen,  40 
Phloem,  22,  40 
Phoenix  dac'.ylijera,  390 
Phoroglucin  tincture,  9 
Photomicrographic  apparatus,  7 
Photosynthesis,  28 
Phytelephas  macrocarpa,  293 
Picric  acid,  25 
Pimento,  acris,  526 

officinalis,  526 
Pimpinella  Anisum,  558 
Pine-nut,  316 
Pineapple,  395 
Pinus  Cembra,  316 

var.  Siberica,  316 

Pinea,  316 
Piper  Cubeba,  513 

Ion  gum,  511 

nig  rum,  502 

officinarum,  511 
Piperaceous  fruits,  502 
Piper acece,  502 
Pistacia  vera,  315 
Pistachio-nut,  315 
Pistil,  32 

Pisum  arvense,  242 
sativum,  242 
Pith,  40,  45 
Pits,  bordered,  42 
Plantaginacea,  163 
Plantago  lanceolata,  163 

major,  163 
Plantain,  163 
Plasmon  Chocolate,  449 
Plastids,  23 

Plodia  inter punctella,  50 
Plum,  340 

compared  with   almond,   peach,   and 
apricot,  336 

preserves,  341 
Plumule,  38,  61 
Poivre  de  Thebet,  526 
Polarizing  apparatus,  7 
Pollen,  31,  32,  35 
sacs,  31 
tubes,  35 

Polygonacece,  132,  621 
Polygonaceous  seeds,  miscellaneous,  144 
Polygonum  aviculare,  146 

,     Convolvulus,  138,  145,  187 
Polynesian  ivory-nut,  295 
Polyporece,  424 
Pomace,  apple,  327 
castor,  220 
grape,  385 
olive,  229 
Pomes,  323 
Poppy  seed,  223 
Portland  arrowroot,  666 
Postum  cereal  coffee,  436 
Potash  solution,  9 


Potassium  iodide,  iodine  in,  9 
Potato,  414 

Japanese,  415 
starch,  659 

Poultry  foods,  condimental,  499 
Powders,  commercial,  14 

examination  of,  14 
Preliminary  examination 
of  cereal  cattle  foods,  59 
of  condimental  cattle  and  poultry  foods, 500 
of  flour  and  meal,  52 
of  fruit  products,  320 
of  oil-seed  products,  170 
of  spices  and  condiments,  496 
Prepared  mustard,  183 
Preservatives,  chemical,  in  jam,  etc.,  320 
Primary  cortex,  40 
Proteids,  24 
Protoplasm,  23 
Prunus  amygdalus,  333 
Armeniaca,  339 
avium,  341,  468 
cerasus,  341 
domestica,  340 
Persica,  337 
spinosa,  469 
triflora,  340 

Psalliota  campestris,  423 
Psoralia  glandula,  483 
Pterocarpus  santalinus,  44 
Pueraria  Thunbergiana ,  670 
Pulps,  15 
Pumpkin,  402 
Punica  granatum,  626 
Pyralis  farinalis,  50 
Pyrenomycetes,  164 
Pyrus  Aucuparia,  463 
baccata,  324 
communis,  328 
Cydonia,  331 
Malus,  323 
Sinensis,  328 

Queensland  arrowroot,  662 
Quercus  Cerris,  302 

pedunculata ,  302,  477 

pubescens,  302 

sessiliflora,  302,  477 
Quince,  331 

Radial  bundles,  45 
Radicle,  38,  61 
Radish,  wild,  186,  193 
Rafinose,  25 
Raisins,  385 

Ralston  cereal  coffee,  436 
Ranunculace<p,  152,  640 
Ranunculaceous  seeds,  152 
Ranunculus  arvensis,  145,  153 
Rape,  brown  Indian,  188 
* .    common,  185 

German,  187 

palai,  188 


INDEX. 


697 


Raphanus  Raphanistrum,  186,  193 
Raphe,  35,  37 
Raphides,  26,  27 
Raspberry,  black,  354 
red,  349 

preserves,  353 
Rations  Coffee,  436 
Razor,  section,  6 
Reagent  bottles,  7 
Reagents,  8 

treatment  with,  15 
Receptacle,  33 
Red  currant,  357 

preserves,  361 
raspberry,  349 

preserves,  353 
sandalwood,  44 
Reserve  material,  36,  37 
Resins,  26 
Respiration,  28 
Reticulated  vessels,  22 
Rhizomes,  43 

used  as  spices,  599 
Rhizopogon,  422 
Ribes  Grossularia,  363 
nigrum,  362 
oxyacanthoides,  363 
rubrum,  357 
Rice,  105 

bran,  no 
by-products,  no 
flaked,  no 
flour,  no 
hulls,  1 10 

mill-products  of,  no 
starch,  109,  no,  652 
Ricinus  communis,  220 
Rolled  wheat,  70 
Root,  44 

annual,  44 
hairs,  45 
stalks,  43 

Roots  and  tubers  used  as  vegetables,  414 
Roots,  perennial  woody,  45 
Rosa  canina,  342,  470 
Rosacea,  323,  463,  468,  470,  471,  473 
Rosaceous  fruits,  323 
Rose  fruit,  342 

leaves,  470 
Rowan  leaves,  463 
Rubiacece,  161,  427,  466 
Rubus  fructicosus,  354 
Idccus,  349 
nigrobaccus,  354 

var.  sativus,  354 
occidentals,  354 
strigosus,  349 
villosus,  354 
Rumex  acetosa,  622 
patientia,  622 
scutatus,  621 
Rutacece,  376 
Rye,  77 


Rye  bran,  79 

by-products,  79 
flour,  79 
middlings,  79 
products,  78,  79 
smut,  1 66 

Sacca-Coffee,  434 

Saccharine,  320 

SafHower,  626,  629 

Saffron,  623 

cape,  631 

South  African,  632 

Safranin  solution,  10,  17 

Sage,  610  . 

Sageretia  theezans,  483 

Sago,  667 

Sagus  Icrvis,  667 

Rumphii,  667 

Saigon  cassia,  586,  589 

Saladinkaffee,  436 

Salicylic  acid,  320 

Salix,  461 

Salvia  ofjicinalis,  610 

Sandalwood,  red,  44,  495,  626 

Sapindacece,  451,  657 

Saponaria  officinalis,  151 
Vaccaria,  151 

Sarepta  mustard,  182,  183 

Sarkogen  layer  of  strawberry,  345 

Satureja  horlensis,  613 

Savory,  613 

Sawdust,  42,  43,  52 

in  flour,  52 

Saxifragacefc,  357,  476 

Saxifragaceous  fruits,  357 

Scalariform  vessels,  22 

Scarlet  runner,  240 

Schimper's  scum  method  for  flour,  55 

Schultze's  macerating  mixture,  10 

Schweitzer's  reagent,  10 

Sclerenchyma,  20 

fibers,  21 

Scleroderma  vulgare,  422 

Sclerotium,  164 

Scolymus  Hispanicus,  626 

Screenings,  145 

European,  146 
American,  146 
uses  of,  146 
examination  of,  148 
botanical  analyses  of,  147 

Scrophulariacetp,  156,  458,  631 

Scum  method  for  flour,  Schimper's,  55 

Scutellum,  61 

Sea  Island  cotton,  205 

Secale  cereale,  77 

Sechium  cdule,  670 

Secondary  cortex,  40 

Section  razor,  6 

Sections,  cross-,  12 

1       longitudinal,  12 
surface,  13 


698 


INDEX 


Sections,  tangential,  12 
Seed,  33 

coat,  37 
Sesame,  common,  217 

black,  219 

Sesamum  Indicum,  217 
radiatum,  219 
Setaria  glauca,  124,  560 
Italica,  118 
panis,  118,  124 
viridis,  118,  560 
Shagbark  hickory-nut,  299 
Shells,  acorn,  306 
almond,  337 
Brazil-nut,  314 
chestnut,  302 
cocoa,  448 
cocoanut,  289 
hazelnut,  311 
nutmeg,  539 
pepper,  309 
walnut,  297 

Shepherd's  purse,  186,  191 
Shikimi,  572 

Shredded  cereal  coffee,  436 
cocoanut,  289 
wheat,  70 

Sicyos  angulatus,  670 
Sieva  bean,  241 
Sieve  plates,  23 

tubes,  22,  23 
Silica,  21,  27 
Silk-cotton  trees,  211 
Silvanus  surinamensis,  50 
Simple  microscope,  6 
Sinapis  alba,  176 

arvensis,  184,  186 
d^-ssecta,  189 
glauca,  187 
Sisymbrium  officinale,  186,  191 

Sophia,  1 86,  191 
Sitotroga  cerealella,  50 
Slides,  7 
Sloe  leaves,  469 
Smut,  maize,  166 

rye,  166 
Smuts,  51,  165 

loose,  1 66 
stinking,  166 
Snap  beans,  238 
Soap  wort,  151 
Soda  solution,  10 
Sodium  benzoate,  320 

phosphate,  solution,  25 
Soja  bean,  248 
Soja  hispida,  248 
Solanacete,  410,  414,  486,.  515 
Solanaceous  fruits,  410,  515 
Solanum  Lycopersicum,  410 

tuber osum,  414,  659 
Sorbus  Aucuparia,  463 
Sorghum  Caffrorum,  97 
cernuum,  97 


Sorghum  nigrum,  97 

saccharatum,  97 
vulgare,  97 
Sorrel,  621 

Soudan  coffee,  257,  436 
South  African  saffron,  632 
Soy  bean,  248 
Spanish  bean,  240 

hazelnut,  309 
pepper,  515 

Spartium  scoparium,  640 
Spelt,  73 

Spergula  arvens^s,  152 
Spermoderm,  35,  37 
Sphacelia,  164 
Spices  and  condiments,  493 
adulterants  of,  494 

inorganic,  495 
organic,  495 
analytical  key  to,  498 
identification  of,  495 
impurities  of,  493 
insects  in,  494 

methods  of  examination  of,  496 
chemical,  500 
microscopical,  497 
preliminary,  500 
weed  seeds  in,  494 
Spircea  Ulmaria,  473 
Spiral  vessels,  22 
Spongy  parenchyma,  20,  21 
Spring  morel,  422 
vetch,  251 
Sprouted  grain,  51 

in  flour,  51 
Spurrey,  152 
Squash,  406 
Stachys  Sieboldii,  415 
Stachytarpheta  Jamaicensis,  483 
Staining,  17 
Stamens,  31 
Standard  materials,  n 
Star-anise,  566 

compared  with  Shikimi,  572 
Starch,  arum,  666 

banana,  395,  646,  658 

bean,  239 

bean-tree,  658 

bread-fruit,  659 

buckwheat,  135,  654 

canna,  662 

cassava,  664 

chemical  composition  of,  645 

chestnut,  301,  656 

cockle,  150,  646 

Colchicum,  646 

commercial,  648 

curcuma,  646,  662 

Erythronium,  669,  670 

Euphorbia,  646 

feed,  96 

formation  of,  by  leucoplasts,  643 

horse-chestnut,  657 


INDEX. 


699 


Starch,  Iris,  646 

leguminous,  235,  655 

maize,  95,  646,  651 

maranta,  660 

microscopic  characters  of,  645 

examination  of,  649 

miscellaneous,  669 

oat,  115,  646 

pea,  243,  646 

potato,  414,  646,  659 

process  of  manufacture  of,  648 

reserve,  643 

rice,  109,  652 

sago,  646,  667 

sweet-potato,  665 

Tacca,  667 

transitory,  643 

uses  of,  649 

wheat,  69,  646,  647,  653 

with  polarized  light,  647,  648 

yam,  663 
Starch  grains,  aggregates  of,  645 

crystalline  structure  of,  648 
deportment     with     polarized 

light  of?  647,  648 
forms  of,  645 
hilum  of,  647 
size  of,  646 
Starches,  analytical  key  to,  649 

commercial,  643 
Stegmata,  23,  27 

Steinbusch's  diastase  method  for  flour,  55 
Stele,  40 
Stem,  38 
Stems,  aerial,  39 

annual,  39 

perennial,  40 

subterranean.  43 
Stephanie-Kaffee,  436 
Sterculiacecg,  442 
Stigma,  32 
Stomata,  21,  29 

water,  29 
Stone  cells,  21 
Strawberry,  343 

leaves,  471 
preserves,  348 
String-beans,  238 
Style,  32 
Suberin,  21 
Substage  condenser,  7 
diaphragm,  6 
Subterranean  stems,  43 
Sugar,  cane,  25 

invert,  25 

Sugar  sorghum,  103 
Sugars,  25 
Sulphuric  acid,  10 
Sultan  coffee,  434 
Sunflower,  194 
Surface  sections,  13 
Swedish  continental  coffee,  264,  436 
Sweet  chocolate,  448 


Sweet  clover,  273 

flag,  608 

vernal  grass,  273 

woodruff,  273 
Sweet-potato  starch,  665 
Swiss  pine,  316 

Tacca  starch,  667 
Tacca  pinnatifida,  667 
Taccacece,  667 
Tahiti  arrowroot,  667 
Tangential  sections,  12 
Tannins,  26 
Tare,  251 
Tarragon,  617 
Tartary  buckwheat,  138 
Tea,  452 

Caucasian,  481 

exhausted,  456 

facing  of,  456 

foreign  leaves  in,  457 

fruit,  456 

lie,  456 

mineral  make  weights  in,  456 

stems,  456 

substitutes,  miscellaneous,  483 
Tenebrio  molitor,  50 

obscurus,  50  v 

Tenebroides  mauritanicus,  50 
Ternstrcemiacea,  452,  467 
Testa,  37 

Theobroma  Cacao,  442 
Thlaspi  arvense,  186,  192 
Thyme,  615 
Thymus  vulgaris,  615 
Tik,  tikor,  or  tikur  flour,  662 
Tilletia  Caries,  166 
fcetens,  166 
Icevis,  1 66 
Secalis,  1 66 
Tritici,  166 
Tinea  granella,  50 
Tissues,  20 

epidermal,  21 
Tobacco,  486 
Tobasco  allspice,  526 
Tomato,  410 

catsup,  320,  412 
Tonka  bean,  273 
Tonquin  bean,  273 
Tori,  1 88 

Tous  les  mois  arrowroot,  662 
Tracheae,  22 
Tracheids,  22 
Transpiration,  28 
Travencore  starch,  662 
Treacle  mustard,  192 
Treatment  with  iodine,  16 

with  oil  solvents,  16 
with  reagents,  15 
Tribolium  confusum,  50 

jerrngineum,  50 
Trigonella  Fcenum-Gracum,  259 


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